Papers by Andy Needham
Evidence of care for the ill and injured amongst Neanderthals, inferred through skeletal evidence... more Evidence of care for the ill and injured amongst Neanderthals, inferred through skeletal evidence for survival from severe illness and injury, is widely accepted. However, healthcare practices have been viewed primarily as an example of complex cultural behaviour, often discussed alongside symbolism or mortuary practices. Here we argue that care for the ill and injured is likely to have a long evolutionary history and to have been highly effective in improving health and reducing mortality risks. Healthcare provisioning can thus be understood alongside other collaborative 'risk pooling' strategies such as collaborative hunting, food sharing and collaborative parenting. For Neanderthals in particular the selective advantages of healthcare provisioning would have been elevated by a variety of ecological conditions which increased the risk of injury as well their particular behavioural adaptations which affected the benefits of promoting survival from injury and illness. We argue that healthcare provisioning was not only a more significant evolutionary adaptation than has previously been acknowledged, but moreover may also have been essential to Neanderthal occupation at the limits of the North Temperate Zone.
Star Carr Volume 2: Studies in Technology, Subsistence and Environment, 2018
Star Carr Volume 2: Studies in Technology, Subsistence and Environment, 2018
(Open access: https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2018.1433060)
Explanations for patterns of heal... more (Open access: https://doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2018.1433060)
Explanations for patterns of healed trauma in Neanderthals have been a matter of debate for several decades. Despite widespread evidence for recovery from injuries or survival despite impairments, apparent evidence for healthcare is given limited attention. Moreover, interpretations of Neanderthals’ approach to injury and suffering sometimes assume a calculated or indifferent attitude to others. Here the authors review evidence for Neanderthal healthcare, drawing on a bioarchaeology of care approach and relating healthcare to other realms of Neanderthal social life. The authors argue that Neanderthal medical treatment and healthcare was widespread and part of a social context of strong pro-social bonds which was not distinctively different from healthcare seen in later contexts. They suggest that the time has come to accept Neanderthal healthcare as a compassionate and knowledgeable response to injury and illness, and to turn to other questions, such as cultural variation or the wider significance of healthcare in an evolutionary context.
Ochre is an important mineral pigment used by prehistoric hunter-gatherers across the globe, and ... more Ochre is an important mineral pigment used by prehistoric hunter-gatherers across the globe, and its use in the Mesolithic is no exception. Using optical microscopy and Raman spectroscopy with micrometre spatial resolution (micro-Raman), we present evidence that confirms unambiguously the use of ochre by hunter-gatherers at Mesolithic sites surrounding Palaeo-Lake Flixton, Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire, UK. Our results suggest that people collected ochre and processed it in different ways, likely for diverse purposes. The quality and specificity of chemical characterisation possible with micro-Raman facilitates new avenues for further research on ochreous materials in Britain, including provenancing through chemical 'fingerprinting'.
Europe in the Middle Palaeolithic would have been an unfamiliar world. The landscapes which we re... more Europe in the Middle Palaeolithic would have been an unfamiliar world. The landscapes which we reconstruct for this period seem almost alien - often shrouded in ice, occupied by extinct fauna, such as mammoths and woolly rhinoceros, and moreover by people seen by many as ‘not quite human’. Unlike in later periods such as the Mesolithic (see Warren this volume) analogies between modern foragers and populations in the Middle Palaeolithic, Neanderthals, are rare. Such comparisons have typically been restricted to generalised ecological models, rarely extending to the social and cultural lives of these ‘strangers in strange land’ (Stutz 2012). Whilst in recent years a certain blurring of the boundaries between Neanderthals and modern humans has opened up the possibility of drawing on ethnographically documented societies to understand Neanderthal sociality such analogy is far from straightforward. Wholesale application of models from modern contexts onto this distant and undoubtedly different past risks compressing the very diversity we hope to understand. Even so, not only can modern foragers potentially provide much needed insight, but the distant lives lived by Neanderthals equally present us with a possibility of bringing something new to our understanding of hunter-gatherers.
Here we aim to rise to the challenge of including Neanderthals within the diversity of hunter- gatherer social existence, without imposing a modern foraging adaptation on to their way of life. We review some of the difficulties with the direct application of analogies from contemporary hunter-gatherers, and explore alternative approaches to help us to understand the nature of Neanderthal sociality.
As part of the excavations at Star Carr in the summer of 2007 a ‘block’ sample of organic peat fr... more As part of the excavations at Star Carr in the summer of 2007 a ‘block’ sample of organic peat from the archaeologically rich lake edge deposits was removed for micro-excavation in the laboratory. The main aim was to compare the recovery of material and level of detail between on site excavation and excavation in the laboratory. The techniques employed aimed
by Michael Bamforth, Shannon Croft, Ben J Elliott, Aimée Little, Becky Knight, Roland Kröger, Harry K Robson, Charlotte C A Rowley, Konstantinos Chatzipanagis, Andy Needham, and R. Kroger [note, this paper is open access and free to view]
In 2015 an engraved shale pendant was found d... more [note, this paper is open access and free to view]
In 2015 an engraved shale pendant was found during excavations at the Early Mesolithic site of Star Carr, UK. Engraved motifs on Mesolithic pendants are extremely rare, with the exception of amber pendants from southern Scandinavia. The artwork on the pendant is the earliest known Mesolithic art in Britain; the 'barbed line' motif is comparable to styles on the Continent, particularly in Denmark. When it was first uncovered the lines were barely visible but using a range of digital imaging techniques it has been possible to examine them in detail and determine the style of engraving as well as the order in which the lines might have been made. In addition, microwear and residue analyses were applied to examine whether the pendant showed signs that it had been strung or worn, and whether the lines had been made more visible through the application of pigments, as has been suggested for some Danish amber pendants. This approach of using multiple scientific and analytical techniques has not been used previously and provides a methodology for the examination of similar artefacts in the future.
As part of the excavations at Star Carr in the summer of 2007, a 'block' sample of peat from the ... more As part of the excavations at Star Carr in the summer of 2007, a 'block' sample of peat from the archaeologically rich lake-edge deposits was removed for micro-excavation in the laboratory. The main aim was to compare on-site excavation and excavation in the laboratory. The techniques employed for the block were intended to maximise the chances of recovering fragile organic remains and provide an understanding of the spatial relationships between them. In addition, the time and resources required to excavate the block were evaluated in order to assess the merits of undertaking block lifting and excavation, with a view to informing future work.
published version: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ojoa.12030/abstract/
Childhood is ... more published version: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ojoa.12030/abstract/
Childhood is a core stage in development, essential in the acquisition of social, practical and cultural skills. However, this area receives limited attention in archaeological debate, especially in early prehistory. We here consider Neanderthal childhood, exploring the experience of Neanderthal children using biological, cultural and social evidence. We conclude that Neanderthal childhood experience was subtly different from that of their modern human counterparts, orientated around a greater focus on social relationships within their group. Neanderthal children, as reflected in the burial record, may have played a particularly significant role in their society, especially in the domain of symbolic expression. A consideration of childhood informs broader debates surrounding the subtle differences between Neanderthals and modern humans.
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This paper presents the resul... more http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030544031100029X
This paper presents the results of a project aimed at investigating the deterioration of organic remains at the Mesolithic site of Star Carr. Analyses of pH, Electrical Conductivity and Redox Potential are reported from borehole transects across the unexcavated part of the site. A comparison of field and laboratory measurements is made, leading to the characterisation of different preservation zones and identification of ‘vulnerable’ sediments at the site. These data are augmented by geochemical analyses of contemporary borehole sequences and adjacent historic monoliths. Analysis of surface water and groundwater has also been undertaken to assist in the interpretation of the site hydrology and geochemistry. The relationship between ‘natural’ geology and preservation potential, and the evidence for a ‘halo’ preservation effect in virgin sediments adjacent to previous archaeology trenches is investigated.
The results indicate a restricted ‘halo’ effect from adjacent backfilled archaeological excavations and the importance of the underlying glacial sediments in determining hydrology and preservation status. The disconnection of circum-neutral groundwater from the Mesolithic peats appears to be a crucial factor in their acidification. Most organic horizons appear to have suffered almost complete chemical oxidation of sulphide to sulphate. The hydrological isolation of Star Carr is shown by the large disparities in water chemistry in different local groundwater sources and strongly suggests an internal source for the elevated sulphur levels at the site.
We are increasingly aware of the role of emotions and emotional construction in social relationsh... more We are increasingly aware of the role of emotions and emotional construction in social relationships. However, despite their significance, there are few constructs or theoretical approaches to the evolution of emotions that can be related to the prehistoric archaeological record. Whilst we frequently discuss how archaic humans might have thought, how they felt might seem to be beyond the realm of academic inquiry. In this paper we aim to open up the debate into the construction of emotion in early prehistory by proposing key stages in the emotional motivation to help others; the feeling of compassion, in human evolution. We review existing literature on compassion and highlight what appear to be particularly significant thresholds in the development of compassion for human social relationships and the evolution of the human mind.
[please note, this paper is open access. Follow the link for the full published version]. Differe... more [please note, this paper is open access. Follow the link for the full published version]. Different cultural and research traditions have led to distinctively different approaches to lithics analysis. An integration of different approaches can often give new 'ways of seeing' artefact assemblages and distribution patterns and provide valuable insights into past activities. Here we present the preliminary results of a project integrating detailed analytical techniques, focused on processes of production and consumption and social dynamics in ethnarchaeological contexts in Tierra del Fuego with existing detailed lithic analysis at Mesolithic sites in the Central Pennines. Such methods, taken from Argentina (Álvarez) and Spain (Briz), that were developed in ethnoarchaeological contexts employed detailed edge morphological analysis and use wear. When applied to site A at March Hill, these techniques yielded interesting new insights about activities at the site, and provided a test case for such techniques.
Other publications by Andy Needham
Theses by Andy Needham
This thesis asks a simple question: is there more to Palaeolithic art than meets the eye? The his... more This thesis asks a simple question: is there more to Palaeolithic art than meets the eye? The history of the study of Palaeolithic art reveals a fixation on the analysis of how art looks in its finished form. This thesis challenges this framework by exploring art from an object biography approach, augmented by a suite of new digital techniques, and through the exploration of non-western ontologies concerning humans, animals and objects. This approach is explored through application to a detailed case study: engraved stone plaquettes from the Magdalenian site of Montastruc, south-central France. The plaquettes are assessed not only based on their visual attributes, but how they were made, used and deposited, enhanced via the use of 3D models and microscopy. Emphasis is placed on trying to re-contextualise the collection, offering an analysis of all objects from the Peccadeau de l’Isle collection held in the British Museum, some 15,620 objects. These broad life phases are considered within a Magdalenian cosmology occupied by numerous agents beyond the bounds of humans alone. In the creation and use of art, this non-human agency is argued to be evident, playing an active role in the choices made by the artists working at Montastruc. The plaquettes are argued to be deeply social, made close to fire and by multiple artists of varying skill. The plaquettes had a distinct life history when compared to organic art objects found at the site, highlighting the nuance that can be revealed through an object biography perspective. The rich interpretations made possible by shifting the archaeological gaze to object biography, insights from non-western anthropology, and new high-resolution digital techniques are argued to represent a significant approach that can potentially be applied to other Palaeolithic art contexts and beyond.
Unpublished Masters Thesis submitted for the degree of Early Prehistory, University of York, 2010... more Unpublished Masters Thesis submitted for the degree of Early Prehistory, University of York, 2010.
Palaeolithic ‘Venus’ figurines have received a relatively large amount of attention and have a broad range of interpretations attached to them. However, these interpretations are often generated through the same narrow channel, that their visual appearance is central to meaning and that Western personhood is an adequate model to use when dealing with ancient peoples. This leads to the interpretations being, in many respects, very similar, using the same modes of evidence to support their claims. This research challenges these approaches by generating new data beyond the visual in the ‘Venus’ figurine assemblage, focusing on the chaîne opératoire and life history of the figurines and linking this technical approach to a non-western personhood perspective. A case is made for the figurines being more than mere objects, instead a significant actor in socio-material networks, significant in the mediation of social relationships and charged with significance, evidenced through their varied usage in diverse and rich social settings.
posters by Andy Needham
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Papers by Andy Needham
Explanations for patterns of healed trauma in Neanderthals have been a matter of debate for several decades. Despite widespread evidence for recovery from injuries or survival despite impairments, apparent evidence for healthcare is given limited attention. Moreover, interpretations of Neanderthals’ approach to injury and suffering sometimes assume a calculated or indifferent attitude to others. Here the authors review evidence for Neanderthal healthcare, drawing on a bioarchaeology of care approach and relating healthcare to other realms of Neanderthal social life. The authors argue that Neanderthal medical treatment and healthcare was widespread and part of a social context of strong pro-social bonds which was not distinctively different from healthcare seen in later contexts. They suggest that the time has come to accept Neanderthal healthcare as a compassionate and knowledgeable response to injury and illness, and to turn to other questions, such as cultural variation or the wider significance of healthcare in an evolutionary context.
Here we aim to rise to the challenge of including Neanderthals within the diversity of hunter- gatherer social existence, without imposing a modern foraging adaptation on to their way of life. We review some of the difficulties with the direct application of analogies from contemporary hunter-gatherers, and explore alternative approaches to help us to understand the nature of Neanderthal sociality.
In 2015 an engraved shale pendant was found during excavations at the Early Mesolithic site of Star Carr, UK. Engraved motifs on Mesolithic pendants are extremely rare, with the exception of amber pendants from southern Scandinavia. The artwork on the pendant is the earliest known Mesolithic art in Britain; the 'barbed line' motif is comparable to styles on the Continent, particularly in Denmark. When it was first uncovered the lines were barely visible but using a range of digital imaging techniques it has been possible to examine them in detail and determine the style of engraving as well as the order in which the lines might have been made. In addition, microwear and residue analyses were applied to examine whether the pendant showed signs that it had been strung or worn, and whether the lines had been made more visible through the application of pigments, as has been suggested for some Danish amber pendants. This approach of using multiple scientific and analytical techniques has not been used previously and provides a methodology for the examination of similar artefacts in the future.
Childhood is a core stage in development, essential in the acquisition of social, practical and cultural skills. However, this area receives limited attention in archaeological debate, especially in early prehistory. We here consider Neanderthal childhood, exploring the experience of Neanderthal children using biological, cultural and social evidence. We conclude that Neanderthal childhood experience was subtly different from that of their modern human counterparts, orientated around a greater focus on social relationships within their group. Neanderthal children, as reflected in the burial record, may have played a particularly significant role in their society, especially in the domain of symbolic expression. A consideration of childhood informs broader debates surrounding the subtle differences between Neanderthals and modern humans.
This paper presents the results of a project aimed at investigating the deterioration of organic remains at the Mesolithic site of Star Carr. Analyses of pH, Electrical Conductivity and Redox Potential are reported from borehole transects across the unexcavated part of the site. A comparison of field and laboratory measurements is made, leading to the characterisation of different preservation zones and identification of ‘vulnerable’ sediments at the site. These data are augmented by geochemical analyses of contemporary borehole sequences and adjacent historic monoliths. Analysis of surface water and groundwater has also been undertaken to assist in the interpretation of the site hydrology and geochemistry. The relationship between ‘natural’ geology and preservation potential, and the evidence for a ‘halo’ preservation effect in virgin sediments adjacent to previous archaeology trenches is investigated.
The results indicate a restricted ‘halo’ effect from adjacent backfilled archaeological excavations and the importance of the underlying glacial sediments in determining hydrology and preservation status. The disconnection of circum-neutral groundwater from the Mesolithic peats appears to be a crucial factor in their acidification. Most organic horizons appear to have suffered almost complete chemical oxidation of sulphide to sulphate. The hydrological isolation of Star Carr is shown by the large disparities in water chemistry in different local groundwater sources and strongly suggests an internal source for the elevated sulphur levels at the site.
Other publications by Andy Needham
Theses by Andy Needham
Palaeolithic ‘Venus’ figurines have received a relatively large amount of attention and have a broad range of interpretations attached to them. However, these interpretations are often generated through the same narrow channel, that their visual appearance is central to meaning and that Western personhood is an adequate model to use when dealing with ancient peoples. This leads to the interpretations being, in many respects, very similar, using the same modes of evidence to support their claims. This research challenges these approaches by generating new data beyond the visual in the ‘Venus’ figurine assemblage, focusing on the chaîne opératoire and life history of the figurines and linking this technical approach to a non-western personhood perspective. A case is made for the figurines being more than mere objects, instead a significant actor in socio-material networks, significant in the mediation of social relationships and charged with significance, evidenced through their varied usage in diverse and rich social settings.
posters by Andy Needham
Explanations for patterns of healed trauma in Neanderthals have been a matter of debate for several decades. Despite widespread evidence for recovery from injuries or survival despite impairments, apparent evidence for healthcare is given limited attention. Moreover, interpretations of Neanderthals’ approach to injury and suffering sometimes assume a calculated or indifferent attitude to others. Here the authors review evidence for Neanderthal healthcare, drawing on a bioarchaeology of care approach and relating healthcare to other realms of Neanderthal social life. The authors argue that Neanderthal medical treatment and healthcare was widespread and part of a social context of strong pro-social bonds which was not distinctively different from healthcare seen in later contexts. They suggest that the time has come to accept Neanderthal healthcare as a compassionate and knowledgeable response to injury and illness, and to turn to other questions, such as cultural variation or the wider significance of healthcare in an evolutionary context.
Here we aim to rise to the challenge of including Neanderthals within the diversity of hunter- gatherer social existence, without imposing a modern foraging adaptation on to their way of life. We review some of the difficulties with the direct application of analogies from contemporary hunter-gatherers, and explore alternative approaches to help us to understand the nature of Neanderthal sociality.
In 2015 an engraved shale pendant was found during excavations at the Early Mesolithic site of Star Carr, UK. Engraved motifs on Mesolithic pendants are extremely rare, with the exception of amber pendants from southern Scandinavia. The artwork on the pendant is the earliest known Mesolithic art in Britain; the 'barbed line' motif is comparable to styles on the Continent, particularly in Denmark. When it was first uncovered the lines were barely visible but using a range of digital imaging techniques it has been possible to examine them in detail and determine the style of engraving as well as the order in which the lines might have been made. In addition, microwear and residue analyses were applied to examine whether the pendant showed signs that it had been strung or worn, and whether the lines had been made more visible through the application of pigments, as has been suggested for some Danish amber pendants. This approach of using multiple scientific and analytical techniques has not been used previously and provides a methodology for the examination of similar artefacts in the future.
Childhood is a core stage in development, essential in the acquisition of social, practical and cultural skills. However, this area receives limited attention in archaeological debate, especially in early prehistory. We here consider Neanderthal childhood, exploring the experience of Neanderthal children using biological, cultural and social evidence. We conclude that Neanderthal childhood experience was subtly different from that of their modern human counterparts, orientated around a greater focus on social relationships within their group. Neanderthal children, as reflected in the burial record, may have played a particularly significant role in their society, especially in the domain of symbolic expression. A consideration of childhood informs broader debates surrounding the subtle differences between Neanderthals and modern humans.
This paper presents the results of a project aimed at investigating the deterioration of organic remains at the Mesolithic site of Star Carr. Analyses of pH, Electrical Conductivity and Redox Potential are reported from borehole transects across the unexcavated part of the site. A comparison of field and laboratory measurements is made, leading to the characterisation of different preservation zones and identification of ‘vulnerable’ sediments at the site. These data are augmented by geochemical analyses of contemporary borehole sequences and adjacent historic monoliths. Analysis of surface water and groundwater has also been undertaken to assist in the interpretation of the site hydrology and geochemistry. The relationship between ‘natural’ geology and preservation potential, and the evidence for a ‘halo’ preservation effect in virgin sediments adjacent to previous archaeology trenches is investigated.
The results indicate a restricted ‘halo’ effect from adjacent backfilled archaeological excavations and the importance of the underlying glacial sediments in determining hydrology and preservation status. The disconnection of circum-neutral groundwater from the Mesolithic peats appears to be a crucial factor in their acidification. Most organic horizons appear to have suffered almost complete chemical oxidation of sulphide to sulphate. The hydrological isolation of Star Carr is shown by the large disparities in water chemistry in different local groundwater sources and strongly suggests an internal source for the elevated sulphur levels at the site.
Palaeolithic ‘Venus’ figurines have received a relatively large amount of attention and have a broad range of interpretations attached to them. However, these interpretations are often generated through the same narrow channel, that their visual appearance is central to meaning and that Western personhood is an adequate model to use when dealing with ancient peoples. This leads to the interpretations being, in many respects, very similar, using the same modes of evidence to support their claims. This research challenges these approaches by generating new data beyond the visual in the ‘Venus’ figurine assemblage, focusing on the chaîne opératoire and life history of the figurines and linking this technical approach to a non-western personhood perspective. A case is made for the figurines being more than mere objects, instead a significant actor in socio-material networks, significant in the mediation of social relationships and charged with significance, evidenced through their varied usage in diverse and rich social settings.
The overarching aim of the session is to bring together researchers of art in prehistoric archaeology, from any period, or using theories and methods that could be applied to prehistoric art, whether with a technical or theoretical focus, from within the discipline or beyond, to facilitate the sharing of recent research, thoughts, techniques, methods, and theories that contribute to engagement with and continuing research efforts in this field. While the session explores art directly, there is the inherent appreciation that art doesn’t make itself and papers will explore how art can be used as a window into the lives of those people who made and used it.
Session Scope
This session explores art in archaeology, both directly and as a window into other aspects of past lifeways. The session welcomes abstracts from researchers of any level of experience and both within and beyond archaeology. The session considers technical and methodological developments in the study of art (e.g. dating, 3D modeling, photogrammetry, p-xrf), as well as theoretical considerations (e.g. anthropological parallels, neurological perspectives, materiality, chaîne opératoire, multi-sensory approaches), and new finds. The temporal and geographical scope of the session is non-specific, with contributions welcome from any period of prehistory or geographical location.
often seen from the vantage of how the former, humans, exploit and utilise the latter, animals and objects. This position is one which commonly finds itself entangled in our archaeological interpretations, regardless of the geographical distance or time depth from its source. New research from a multitude of outside disciplines, such as anthropology and neuropsychology, has begun to paint these relations in quite a different light. Given the weight of new and alternative theory and evidence, we here question this classic division and explore new
means of understanding these relationships. With a reinterpretation of the interactions between each of these entities, from exploitative and hierarchical to something other, comes a deeper understanding of the entities themselves, bringing into question what persons, animals and objects are. We aim not only to encourage archaeological engagement with this rapidly advancing multi-disciplinary domain, but also to progress our understandings of these entities in diverse period specific contexts.
space.
Abstract: The Late Upper Palaeolithic site of Montastruc, SW France, dating to c. 13,000 BP, is home to a rich corpus of mobiliary art, with over 100 decorated organic pieces and 51 engraved stone plaquettes. Some of the organic objects from the site, notably the swimming reindeer, have been rightly identified as works of artistic genius. By comparison, the engraved stone plaquettes are enigmatic and often receive limited attention, despite their numerical prominence across the Magdalenian, likely due to the difficulty associated with interpreting what are often densely packed and superimposed designs. We here explore the use of 3D modelling as a tool in analysing these objects. Using a MechScan whitelight macro 3D scanner, high resolution scans of the plaquettes were created to facilitate design recognition, the analysis of phasing and line order, and to create digital proxies to simulate handling and varying light conditions and directions, and for use in presentation/dissemination. We conclude that 3D models can aid in analysis, presentation and dissemination of results. While never a replacement for engaging first hand with the collection, we suggest that the 3D models produced by this technology can be an effective means of engaging with more ephemeral forms of Palaeolithic art.
Abstract: The Late Upper Palaeolithic rockshelter of Montastruc, SW France, dating to c. 13,000 BP, is situated below a 29m high limestone cliff exposure, overlooking the river Aveyron, excavated by Peccadeau de L’isle in 1864 and again across 1866-67. The site is notable for its rich corpus of mobiliary art, with over 100 decorated organic pieces and 51 engraved stone plaquettes, now curated in the British museum after their purchase in 1887. The stone assemblage is almost entirely composed of weathered limestone blocks that detached from the rock face via natural freeze/thaw action. The organic assemblage is composed of a balance between bone and antler pieces, the former likely derived from animal kills and the latter likely derived from natural shed. The relations between humans, animals and objects are here explored through the art directly, notably the significance of naturalistic forms and a rare therianthropic form, but also through the raw materials themselves, the provenance of which is used to explore the concept of ‘gifting’, the significance of place, as well as animal and object agency. Finally, process and transformation are considered in relation to evidence for the burning and destruction of the stone plaquettes.
Key words – Mesolithic; Final Palaeolithic; Early Neolithic; Westphalia
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