The Book of Kings records more about Ahab than any other Northern monarch (I Kg. 16:29-22:40). It... more The Book of Kings records more about Ahab than any other Northern monarch (I Kg. 16:29-22:40). Its scathing introduction to Ahab's reign sets a decidedly negative tone for the six chapters that follow: Ahab son of Omri did what was displeasing to the Lord, more than all who preceded him. Not content to follow the sins of Jeroboam son of Nebat, he took as wife Jezebel daughter of King Ethbaal of the Phoenicians, and he went and served Baal and worshipped him.... Ahab did more to vex the Lord, the God of Israel, than all the kings of Israel who preceded him (16:30-33). Much of the Ahab narrative may be interpreted in light of this condemnatory introduction. Under Ahab, the worship of Baal became the official religion of the Northern Kingdom. Prophets of God were exterminated (18:4, 13), altars to God were destroyed (18:30), and prophets of Baal and Asherah became the national religious figures (18:19). Although he witnessed drought and rain decreed by Elijah (17:1, 18:45), the spectacular miracles at Mount Carmel (Chap. 18), and the victories against Aram (Chap. 20), Ahab stubbornly clung to his idolatrous behavior. Ahab had a stormy relationship with the prophets, calling Elijah troubler of Israel (18:17) and my enemy (21:20). Ahab hated the prophet Micaiah (22:8), and imprisoned him after he declared that Ahab would perish in battle (22:26-27). The murder of Naboth (Chap. 21) capped a ruthless career of idolatry and immorality. Nevertheless, there are two domains that require further scrutiny: The extent of Jezebel's influence over Ahab, and the surprisingly positive aspects of his reign. The narrator's negative characterization of Ahab raises important methodological issues. Must one read the entire episode in light of the summary statements? Should juxtapositions of narratives affect the interpretation of a given passage? Or, must each episode first be understood in itself, only later to be woven into a more multifaceted picture of Ahab? A talmudic debate captures the complexities in the Ahab narratives: R. Nahman said: Ahab was equally balanced, since it is written, The Lord asked, 'Who will entice Ahab so that he will march and fall at Ramoth-gilead?' Then one said thus and another said thus (22:20). R. Joseph objected: He of whom it is written, Indeed, there never was anyone like Ahab, who committed himself to doing what was displeasing to the Lord, at the instigation of his wife Jezebel (21:25) yet you say that he was equally balanced! (Sanhedrin 102b). According to R. Nahman, Ahab's overall judgment was balanced. By taking each dimension of Ahab separately, R. Nahman allows for a more favorable interpretation of many of Ahab's actions, as we shall see below. In contrast, R. Joseph maintains that the negative summary statements of Ahab's reign should shape the interpretation of all the narrative. In this essay, we will consider how both views together capture the comprehensive portrait of Ahab. JEZEBEL'S INFLUENCE The Book of Kings mentions Jezebel in both summarizing statements condemning Ahab's unparalleled idolatry (16:30-33; 21:25-26). It specifically was Jezebel who killed the prophets of God (18:4, 13). It is unclear, however, whether Jezebel acted on Ahab's orders, with his approval, or whether he weakly and passively looked the other way. The Naboth episode presents a similar ambiguity. Jezebel in fact orchestrated the murder. Ahab may have actively manipulated her emotions, and certainly was guilty for inheriting the vineyard immediately after the execution (Abarbanel, Elhanan Samet). (1) On the other hand, Ahab pouted like a child, and Jezebel acted as a protective mother: Ahab went home dispirited and sullen because of the answer that Naboth the Jezreelite had given him.... He lay down on his bed and turned away his face, and he would not eat.... His wife Jezebel said to him, 'Now is the time to show yourself king over Israel. …
King Solomon, the wisest of all men, received the divine gift of wisdom by making the right wish:... more King Solomon, the wisest of all men, received the divine gift of wisdom by making the right wish: And God said to him, "Because you asked for this--you did not ask for long life, you did not ask for riches, you did not ask for the life of your enemies, but you asked for discernment in dispensing justice--I now do as you have spoken. I grant you a wise and discerning mind; there has never been anyone like you before, nor will anyone like you arise again" (1 Kg. 3:11-12). Most commentators accept the literal reading of the text that Solomon was the wisest person ever. However, Ralbag suggests that Solomon was the wisest only during the period spanning the generation before and after him. In part, Ralbag is speaking as a medieval Jewish philosopher. Ralbag maintains that the wiser the person, the higher level of prophecy he should receive. Since Moses was the greatest prophet, he also must have been the wisest person. He also finds it implausible that there never again would be someone wiser than Solomon. Abarbanel sharply disagrees with Ralbag, since Solomon's wisdom was miraculous. Perhaps God-given wisdom does not follow the conventional rules that may otherwise connect wisdom and prophecy. (1) While the foregoing debate is more related to medieval Jewish philosophy than it is to ascertaining the plain meaning of the biblical narrative, it calls attention to a textual question that has bedeviled commentators for centuries. Immediately following God's grant of unparalleled wisdom, the Book of Kings relates the famed story of Solomon's awarding a baby to the right woman (3:16-28). Solomon's brilliant and shocking resolution gained him instant national fame and royal authority: When all Israel heard the decision that the king had rendered, they stood in awe of the king; for they saw that he possessed divine wisdom to execute justice. King Solomon was now king over all Israel (3:28-4:1). However, many commentators are perturbed. Solomon's suddenly producing a sword and threatening to cut the baby in half is clever and he rendered justice in a difficult trial without any witnesses. But does this solution really demonstrate that he was the wisest person of all time? Ralbag's claim that Solomon's wisdom was the greatest only for those generations would obviate this difficulty. Of course, the plain sense of the text does indicate that Solomon was the wisest man of all time. Confronting this question, several medieval halakhists proposed extra-textual possibilities, including sophisticated legal discussions pertaining to levirate marriage. However, such halakhic answers are far removed from the text, and serve only to highlight the difficulty of the narrative question. Several commentators seek ways of demonstrating that Solomon knew the true mother before the sword was brought out. He produced the sword only to prove to everyone else what he already had ascertained with his special wisdom. R. Joseph Kara (on 3:18) observes that the first woman said that three days separated the boys' births. Perhaps Solomon noticed that the older baby looked more physically developed and Solomon was able to determine the truth teller based on this observation. Alternatively, Abarbanel suggests that Solomon perceptively studied the facial expressions, manner of speaking, and body language of the women and deduced the answer. He then explained to his audience who the true mother was, and brought out the sword to demonstrate what he already knew. However, nothing in the narrative suggests these interpretations. Some commentators note that the narrative may not contain an exact transcript of the court dialogue. Rather, its literary presentation may be exploited for interpretive clues. In this vein, R. Joseph Ibn Caspi and Yehudah Kiel (2) suggest that the order of presentation is critical. The first woman presents the facts in a clear and reasoned manner, whereas the second reacts with an emotional outburst: Later two prostitutes came to the king and stood before him. …
INTRODUCTION The final verses of the Book of Joshua attest to the Golden Age enjoyed by Joshua an... more INTRODUCTION The final verses of the Book of Joshua attest to the Golden Age enjoyed by Joshua and his generation: Israel served the Lord during the lifetime of Joshua and the lifetime of the elders who lived on after Joshua, and who had experienced all the deeds that the Lord had wrought for Israel (Josh. 24:31). Only one person in the Book of Joshua--Achan--is described as having sinned, and he had done so in secret (Ch. 7). The opening verse of Judges, which begins After the death of Joshua (Jud. 1:1), demarcates a clear boundary between Joshua and Judges. As much as the Book of Joshua portrays a Golden Age, Judges delineates a Dark Age. The Israelites' laxity in eliminating Canaanite influence (1:1-2:5) led to a precipitous decline into idolatry after the death of Joshua and the elders who had outlived him: Another generation arose after them, which had not experienced [the deliverance of] the Lord or the deeds that He had wrought for Israel. And the Israelites did what was ...
Happy is the man who has not followed the counsel of the wicked, or taken the path of sinners, or... more Happy is the man who has not followed the counsel of the wicked, or taken the path of sinners, or joined the company of the insolent; rather, the teaching of the Lord is his delight, and he studies that teaching day and night. He is like a tree planted beside streams of water, which yields its fruit in season, whose foliage never fades, and whatever it produces thrives. Not so the wicked; rather, they are like chaff that wind blows away. Therefore the wicked will not survive judgment, nor will sinners, in the assembly of the righteous. For the Lord cherishes the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked is doomed (Ps. 1). Ultimately, one of the 150 psalms had to be chosen as the very first of the Book of Psalms. Nevertheless, it is interesting that the passage selected as Psalm 1 is not a prayer to God; it is wisdom from the psalmist to his readers. (1) Radak (on 1:1) maintains that the Book of Psalms begins with this proclamation of faith because of the centrality of the them...
The Book of Joshua represents one of Israel's ideal eras: Israel served the Lord during the l... more The Book of Joshua represents one of Israel's ideal eras: Israel served the Lord during the lifetime of Joshua and the lifetime of the elders who lived on after Joshua, and who had experienced all the deeds that the Lord had wrought for Israel (Josh. 24:31). Joshua guided his nation into the Promised Land and offered spiritual leadership in addition to political direction. Given the nation's propensity toward complaint and rebellion throughout Moses' tenure, it is striking that it remained entirely loyal to God and to Joshua. Only one man--Achan--sinned, and the people never complained to Joshua, even after their demoralizing loss at Ai. In this study, we will consider Joshua's characterization in the Torah and in the Book of Joshua. With a careful survey of the narratives in which Joshua appears, several rabbinic statements serve as catalysts in explaining the roots of his phenomenal success as a leader. THE BATTLE AGAINST AMALEK Amalek came and fought with Israel a...
In this study, we will consider the diversity of response to two of the most sharply formulated p... more In this study, we will consider the diversity of response to two of the most sharply formulated prayers in the Bible. According to what appears to be the smoothest readings of the passages to be considered, Habakkuk accuses God of poor educational judgment by allowing the wicked Babylonians to conquer Judah, and then boldly demanded a response (Hab. 1:2-4, 2:1). Psalm 89 lashes out at God for abrogating the permanent covenant He had struck with the Davidic dynasty. Traditional interpreters assume that everything in the Bible is Divinely inspired, and applicable to all later generations (see, e.g., Megillah 14a). At the same time, several midrashim and later exegetes are uncomfortable with the bluntness of these prayers, and therefore attempt to restrict their applicability. These commentators adopt variations of at least five interpretive options: 1. The prophet/psalmist acted religiously appropriately, and therefore we should emulate his prayer. 2. The prophet/psalmist acted religi...
Not surprisingly, many of the central themes in the Haggadah are rooted in biblical thought. Amon... more Not surprisingly, many of the central themes in the Haggadah are rooted in biblical thought. Among other teachings, the exodus forms the basis for the singular covenantal relationship between God and Israel; it highlights God’s greatness in history; it is central to the religious education of children; it teaches that we must be eternally grateful to God; and it serves as the model for the future redemption. In this essay, we will survey examples from various sections of Tanakh to see how these and related themes are developed. Interested readers are encouraged to learn the full biblical passages in depth to gain a greater appreciation of their respective contexts.
INTRODUCTION The Book of Hosea begins with God's commanding the prophet to marry a "wife... more INTRODUCTION The Book of Hosea begins with God's commanding the prophet to marry a "wife of whoredom," symbolizing God's relationship with unfaithful Israel prior to the exile of the Northern Kingdom in the eighth century BCE. The prophet obeys by marrying Gomer, and has three children bearing symbolic names that form prophecies of doom in chapter 1 and then prophecies of restoration in chapter 2. Throughout his book, Hosea likens Israel to God's wife and also to God's children. Generally, these images express different aspects of the God-Israel relationship. For example, marriage is the ideal love bond, but a bad marriage can dissolve. In contrast, the bond between parents and children is permanent, no matter how strained the relationship becomes. (1) However, Hosea 2:4-7 stands out in that the prophet appears to give distinct identities to the mother and children. Hosea calls upon the children to rebuke their mother, lest everyone suffer exile. To whom do...
It appears that the Akedah, perhaps more than any other narrative in the Torah, teaches how one c... more It appears that the Akedah, perhaps more than any other narrative in the Torah, teaches how one can and should be extremely religious, but also teaches how to avoid religious extremism. In this essay, we will consider the ideas of several modern thinkers who explore the religious and moral implications of this narrative. Why Did Abraham Not Protest? Although the very idea of child sacrifice is abhorrent to us, it made more sense in Abraham’s historical context. Many of Israel’s neighbors practiced child sacrifice. It stands to reason that when God commanded Abraham to sacrifice his son, Abraham concluded that perhaps God required this of him. Of course, God stopped Abraham and went on to outlaw such practices as a capital offense in the Torah (Leviticus 18:21; 20:2–5). We find child sacrifice abhorrent precisely because the Torah and the prophets broke rank with the pagan world and transformed human values for the better. [2] In its original context, then, the Akedah highlights Abra...
INTRODUCTION Few biblical narratives are so richly intricate as those in the book of Samuel. Thro... more INTRODUCTION Few biblical narratives are so richly intricate as those in the book of Samuel. Throughout these episodes, love and politics mix. While David and Saul and his family were human beings with personal feelings, they also were involved in a complex and oftentimes painful saga of royal succession and competition. They also had to maintain public images. The prophetic narrator regularly reveals the feelings of Saul and his children toward David. At the same time, David's feelings toward Saul and his children are concealed. (1) For that matter, the passionate David is never explicitly said to have loved anyone in the book of Samuel! A number of contemporary scholars have exploited this and related textual evidence to describe the emotional imbalance in these relationships. However, Susan Ackerman has observed that in most biblical relationships involving the term ahavah (love), only one of the parties is explicitly said to love (the Song of Songs is a notable exception). G...
INTRODUCTION The Book of Ezekiel distinguishes itself from other prophetic books in several signi... more INTRODUCTION The Book of Ezekiel distinguishes itself from other prophetic books in several significant ways. Ezekiel's prophetic tenure is entirely in the exile. There is an unprecedented level of revelation in the visions of God and the angelic host. Ezekiel's name hardly appears in the book; instead, God consistently refers to him as ben adam (Son of Man). Ezekiel is surprisingly silent for much of his tenure, often acting out symbolic actions. For the most part, redemption is not contingent on Israel's behavior; rather, God redeems Israel for His Name's sake. Even after Israel is redeemed and returns to her Land, the war of Gog will occur. It appears that Ezekiel's combination of prophecy and priesthood can explain many of the distinctive aspects of his book. Ezekiel's career is intended to parallel the priestly career he would have had in the Temple in Jerusalem in better times. By serving as a priest-prophet in exile, Ezekiel was able to encourage the J...
INTRODUCTION From a peshat perspective, the biblical text stands at the center of our inquiry as ... more INTRODUCTION From a peshat perspective, the biblical text stands at the center of our inquiry as we attempt to determine values from within the Bible. With thousands of years separating our cultural context from that of the Bible, however, it is often hard to distinguish textual messages from our own sensitivities and moral preferences. Consider the behavior of Abraham and Sarah in Genesis chapter 16. Although Hagar was insensitive toward Sarah, Sarah's harsh treatment of Hagar and Abraham's passive acquiescence create a painful tension. Does the narrative give any clues to its moral judgment of Abraham and Sarah? In this essay we consider the opinions of the classical commentators, who relied on the biblical text and early rabbinic traditions. We then turn to ancient Near Eastern parallels to gain insight into the historical-social setting of the Torah. At all times, the biblical text must remain the anchor for interpretation. TEXT AND MEDIEVAL COMMENTARY Sarai, Abram's...
Ra ab bb bi i H Ha ay yy yi im m A An ng ge el l t te ea ac ch he es s a ad dv va an nc ce ed d T... more Ra ab bb bi i H Ha ay yy yi im m A An ng ge el l t te ea ac ch he es s a ad dv va an nc ce ed d T Ta an nk ka ah h c co ou ur rs se es s t to o u un nd de er rg gr ra ad du ua at te es s a an nd d r ra ab bb bi in ni ic ca al l s st tu ud de en nt ts s a at t Y Ye es sh hi iv va a U Un ni iv ve er rs si it ty y, , a an nd d l le ec ct tu ur re es s w wi id de el ly y.. H He e h ha as s p pu ub bl li is sh he ed d o ov ve er r e ei ig gh ht ty y s sc ch ho ol la ar rl ly y a ar rt ti ic cl le es s, , p pr ri im ma ar ri il ly y i in n T T a an na ak kh h, , a an nd d i is s a au ut th ho or r o or r e ed di it to or r o of f t te en n b bo oo ok ks s. .
The Torah rooted out many ancient pagan superstitions. Professor Yehezkel Kaufmann (1889–1963) pi... more The Torah rooted out many ancient pagan superstitions. Professor Yehezkel Kaufmann (1889–1963) pinpointed several critical features that fundamentally distinguish Tanakh from ancient Near Eastern literature. There is one supreme God above who is the Creator of all nature, and there are no forces competing with God. God is absolutely free. God is timeless, ageless, nonphysical, and eternal. Nature is a stage on which God expresses His will in history. Rituals do not harness independent magical powers and do not work automatically. Endowed with free will, people can defy God and even drive God’s Presence away. Evil does not inhere in universe but rather is a product of people sinning, and it undermines creation. Absolute standards of good and justice exist, and
The Book of Kings records more about Ahab than any other Northern monarch (I Kg. 16:29-22:40). It... more The Book of Kings records more about Ahab than any other Northern monarch (I Kg. 16:29-22:40). Its scathing introduction to Ahab's reign sets a decidedly negative tone for the six chapters that follow: Ahab son of Omri did what was displeasing to the Lord, more than all who preceded him. Not content to follow the sins of Jeroboam son of Nebat, he took as wife Jezebel daughter of King Ethbaal of the Phoenicians, and he went and served Baal and worshipped him.... Ahab did more to vex the Lord, the God of Israel, than all the kings of Israel who preceded him (16:30-33). Much of the Ahab narrative may be interpreted in light of this condemnatory introduction. Under Ahab, the worship of Baal became the official religion of the Northern Kingdom. Prophets of God were exterminated (18:4, 13), altars to God were destroyed (18:30), and prophets of Baal and Asherah became the national religious figures (18:19). Although he witnessed drought and rain decreed by Elijah (17:1, 18:45), the spectacular miracles at Mount Carmel (Chap. 18), and the victories against Aram (Chap. 20), Ahab stubbornly clung to his idolatrous behavior. Ahab had a stormy relationship with the prophets, calling Elijah troubler of Israel (18:17) and my enemy (21:20). Ahab hated the prophet Micaiah (22:8), and imprisoned him after he declared that Ahab would perish in battle (22:26-27). The murder of Naboth (Chap. 21) capped a ruthless career of idolatry and immorality. Nevertheless, there are two domains that require further scrutiny: The extent of Jezebel's influence over Ahab, and the surprisingly positive aspects of his reign. The narrator's negative characterization of Ahab raises important methodological issues. Must one read the entire episode in light of the summary statements? Should juxtapositions of narratives affect the interpretation of a given passage? Or, must each episode first be understood in itself, only later to be woven into a more multifaceted picture of Ahab? A talmudic debate captures the complexities in the Ahab narratives: R. Nahman said: Ahab was equally balanced, since it is written, The Lord asked, 'Who will entice Ahab so that he will march and fall at Ramoth-gilead?' Then one said thus and another said thus (22:20). R. Joseph objected: He of whom it is written, Indeed, there never was anyone like Ahab, who committed himself to doing what was displeasing to the Lord, at the instigation of his wife Jezebel (21:25) yet you say that he was equally balanced! (Sanhedrin 102b). According to R. Nahman, Ahab's overall judgment was balanced. By taking each dimension of Ahab separately, R. Nahman allows for a more favorable interpretation of many of Ahab's actions, as we shall see below. In contrast, R. Joseph maintains that the negative summary statements of Ahab's reign should shape the interpretation of all the narrative. In this essay, we will consider how both views together capture the comprehensive portrait of Ahab. JEZEBEL'S INFLUENCE The Book of Kings mentions Jezebel in both summarizing statements condemning Ahab's unparalleled idolatry (16:30-33; 21:25-26). It specifically was Jezebel who killed the prophets of God (18:4, 13). It is unclear, however, whether Jezebel acted on Ahab's orders, with his approval, or whether he weakly and passively looked the other way. The Naboth episode presents a similar ambiguity. Jezebel in fact orchestrated the murder. Ahab may have actively manipulated her emotions, and certainly was guilty for inheriting the vineyard immediately after the execution (Abarbanel, Elhanan Samet). (1) On the other hand, Ahab pouted like a child, and Jezebel acted as a protective mother: Ahab went home dispirited and sullen because of the answer that Naboth the Jezreelite had given him.... He lay down on his bed and turned away his face, and he would not eat.... His wife Jezebel said to him, 'Now is the time to show yourself king over Israel. …
King Solomon, the wisest of all men, received the divine gift of wisdom by making the right wish:... more King Solomon, the wisest of all men, received the divine gift of wisdom by making the right wish: And God said to him, "Because you asked for this--you did not ask for long life, you did not ask for riches, you did not ask for the life of your enemies, but you asked for discernment in dispensing justice--I now do as you have spoken. I grant you a wise and discerning mind; there has never been anyone like you before, nor will anyone like you arise again" (1 Kg. 3:11-12). Most commentators accept the literal reading of the text that Solomon was the wisest person ever. However, Ralbag suggests that Solomon was the wisest only during the period spanning the generation before and after him. In part, Ralbag is speaking as a medieval Jewish philosopher. Ralbag maintains that the wiser the person, the higher level of prophecy he should receive. Since Moses was the greatest prophet, he also must have been the wisest person. He also finds it implausible that there never again would be someone wiser than Solomon. Abarbanel sharply disagrees with Ralbag, since Solomon's wisdom was miraculous. Perhaps God-given wisdom does not follow the conventional rules that may otherwise connect wisdom and prophecy. (1) While the foregoing debate is more related to medieval Jewish philosophy than it is to ascertaining the plain meaning of the biblical narrative, it calls attention to a textual question that has bedeviled commentators for centuries. Immediately following God's grant of unparalleled wisdom, the Book of Kings relates the famed story of Solomon's awarding a baby to the right woman (3:16-28). Solomon's brilliant and shocking resolution gained him instant national fame and royal authority: When all Israel heard the decision that the king had rendered, they stood in awe of the king; for they saw that he possessed divine wisdom to execute justice. King Solomon was now king over all Israel (3:28-4:1). However, many commentators are perturbed. Solomon's suddenly producing a sword and threatening to cut the baby in half is clever and he rendered justice in a difficult trial without any witnesses. But does this solution really demonstrate that he was the wisest person of all time? Ralbag's claim that Solomon's wisdom was the greatest only for those generations would obviate this difficulty. Of course, the plain sense of the text does indicate that Solomon was the wisest man of all time. Confronting this question, several medieval halakhists proposed extra-textual possibilities, including sophisticated legal discussions pertaining to levirate marriage. However, such halakhic answers are far removed from the text, and serve only to highlight the difficulty of the narrative question. Several commentators seek ways of demonstrating that Solomon knew the true mother before the sword was brought out. He produced the sword only to prove to everyone else what he already had ascertained with his special wisdom. R. Joseph Kara (on 3:18) observes that the first woman said that three days separated the boys' births. Perhaps Solomon noticed that the older baby looked more physically developed and Solomon was able to determine the truth teller based on this observation. Alternatively, Abarbanel suggests that Solomon perceptively studied the facial expressions, manner of speaking, and body language of the women and deduced the answer. He then explained to his audience who the true mother was, and brought out the sword to demonstrate what he already knew. However, nothing in the narrative suggests these interpretations. Some commentators note that the narrative may not contain an exact transcript of the court dialogue. Rather, its literary presentation may be exploited for interpretive clues. In this vein, R. Joseph Ibn Caspi and Yehudah Kiel (2) suggest that the order of presentation is critical. The first woman presents the facts in a clear and reasoned manner, whereas the second reacts with an emotional outburst: Later two prostitutes came to the king and stood before him. …
INTRODUCTION The final verses of the Book of Joshua attest to the Golden Age enjoyed by Joshua an... more INTRODUCTION The final verses of the Book of Joshua attest to the Golden Age enjoyed by Joshua and his generation: Israel served the Lord during the lifetime of Joshua and the lifetime of the elders who lived on after Joshua, and who had experienced all the deeds that the Lord had wrought for Israel (Josh. 24:31). Only one person in the Book of Joshua--Achan--is described as having sinned, and he had done so in secret (Ch. 7). The opening verse of Judges, which begins After the death of Joshua (Jud. 1:1), demarcates a clear boundary between Joshua and Judges. As much as the Book of Joshua portrays a Golden Age, Judges delineates a Dark Age. The Israelites' laxity in eliminating Canaanite influence (1:1-2:5) led to a precipitous decline into idolatry after the death of Joshua and the elders who had outlived him: Another generation arose after them, which had not experienced [the deliverance of] the Lord or the deeds that He had wrought for Israel. And the Israelites did what was ...
Happy is the man who has not followed the counsel of the wicked, or taken the path of sinners, or... more Happy is the man who has not followed the counsel of the wicked, or taken the path of sinners, or joined the company of the insolent; rather, the teaching of the Lord is his delight, and he studies that teaching day and night. He is like a tree planted beside streams of water, which yields its fruit in season, whose foliage never fades, and whatever it produces thrives. Not so the wicked; rather, they are like chaff that wind blows away. Therefore the wicked will not survive judgment, nor will sinners, in the assembly of the righteous. For the Lord cherishes the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked is doomed (Ps. 1). Ultimately, one of the 150 psalms had to be chosen as the very first of the Book of Psalms. Nevertheless, it is interesting that the passage selected as Psalm 1 is not a prayer to God; it is wisdom from the psalmist to his readers. (1) Radak (on 1:1) maintains that the Book of Psalms begins with this proclamation of faith because of the centrality of the them...
The Book of Joshua represents one of Israel's ideal eras: Israel served the Lord during the l... more The Book of Joshua represents one of Israel's ideal eras: Israel served the Lord during the lifetime of Joshua and the lifetime of the elders who lived on after Joshua, and who had experienced all the deeds that the Lord had wrought for Israel (Josh. 24:31). Joshua guided his nation into the Promised Land and offered spiritual leadership in addition to political direction. Given the nation's propensity toward complaint and rebellion throughout Moses' tenure, it is striking that it remained entirely loyal to God and to Joshua. Only one man--Achan--sinned, and the people never complained to Joshua, even after their demoralizing loss at Ai. In this study, we will consider Joshua's characterization in the Torah and in the Book of Joshua. With a careful survey of the narratives in which Joshua appears, several rabbinic statements serve as catalysts in explaining the roots of his phenomenal success as a leader. THE BATTLE AGAINST AMALEK Amalek came and fought with Israel a...
In this study, we will consider the diversity of response to two of the most sharply formulated p... more In this study, we will consider the diversity of response to two of the most sharply formulated prayers in the Bible. According to what appears to be the smoothest readings of the passages to be considered, Habakkuk accuses God of poor educational judgment by allowing the wicked Babylonians to conquer Judah, and then boldly demanded a response (Hab. 1:2-4, 2:1). Psalm 89 lashes out at God for abrogating the permanent covenant He had struck with the Davidic dynasty. Traditional interpreters assume that everything in the Bible is Divinely inspired, and applicable to all later generations (see, e.g., Megillah 14a). At the same time, several midrashim and later exegetes are uncomfortable with the bluntness of these prayers, and therefore attempt to restrict their applicability. These commentators adopt variations of at least five interpretive options: 1. The prophet/psalmist acted religiously appropriately, and therefore we should emulate his prayer. 2. The prophet/psalmist acted religi...
Not surprisingly, many of the central themes in the Haggadah are rooted in biblical thought. Amon... more Not surprisingly, many of the central themes in the Haggadah are rooted in biblical thought. Among other teachings, the exodus forms the basis for the singular covenantal relationship between God and Israel; it highlights God’s greatness in history; it is central to the religious education of children; it teaches that we must be eternally grateful to God; and it serves as the model for the future redemption. In this essay, we will survey examples from various sections of Tanakh to see how these and related themes are developed. Interested readers are encouraged to learn the full biblical passages in depth to gain a greater appreciation of their respective contexts.
INTRODUCTION The Book of Hosea begins with God's commanding the prophet to marry a "wife... more INTRODUCTION The Book of Hosea begins with God's commanding the prophet to marry a "wife of whoredom," symbolizing God's relationship with unfaithful Israel prior to the exile of the Northern Kingdom in the eighth century BCE. The prophet obeys by marrying Gomer, and has three children bearing symbolic names that form prophecies of doom in chapter 1 and then prophecies of restoration in chapter 2. Throughout his book, Hosea likens Israel to God's wife and also to God's children. Generally, these images express different aspects of the God-Israel relationship. For example, marriage is the ideal love bond, but a bad marriage can dissolve. In contrast, the bond between parents and children is permanent, no matter how strained the relationship becomes. (1) However, Hosea 2:4-7 stands out in that the prophet appears to give distinct identities to the mother and children. Hosea calls upon the children to rebuke their mother, lest everyone suffer exile. To whom do...
It appears that the Akedah, perhaps more than any other narrative in the Torah, teaches how one c... more It appears that the Akedah, perhaps more than any other narrative in the Torah, teaches how one can and should be extremely religious, but also teaches how to avoid religious extremism. In this essay, we will consider the ideas of several modern thinkers who explore the religious and moral implications of this narrative. Why Did Abraham Not Protest? Although the very idea of child sacrifice is abhorrent to us, it made more sense in Abraham’s historical context. Many of Israel’s neighbors practiced child sacrifice. It stands to reason that when God commanded Abraham to sacrifice his son, Abraham concluded that perhaps God required this of him. Of course, God stopped Abraham and went on to outlaw such practices as a capital offense in the Torah (Leviticus 18:21; 20:2–5). We find child sacrifice abhorrent precisely because the Torah and the prophets broke rank with the pagan world and transformed human values for the better. [2] In its original context, then, the Akedah highlights Abra...
INTRODUCTION Few biblical narratives are so richly intricate as those in the book of Samuel. Thro... more INTRODUCTION Few biblical narratives are so richly intricate as those in the book of Samuel. Throughout these episodes, love and politics mix. While David and Saul and his family were human beings with personal feelings, they also were involved in a complex and oftentimes painful saga of royal succession and competition. They also had to maintain public images. The prophetic narrator regularly reveals the feelings of Saul and his children toward David. At the same time, David's feelings toward Saul and his children are concealed. (1) For that matter, the passionate David is never explicitly said to have loved anyone in the book of Samuel! A number of contemporary scholars have exploited this and related textual evidence to describe the emotional imbalance in these relationships. However, Susan Ackerman has observed that in most biblical relationships involving the term ahavah (love), only one of the parties is explicitly said to love (the Song of Songs is a notable exception). G...
INTRODUCTION The Book of Ezekiel distinguishes itself from other prophetic books in several signi... more INTRODUCTION The Book of Ezekiel distinguishes itself from other prophetic books in several significant ways. Ezekiel's prophetic tenure is entirely in the exile. There is an unprecedented level of revelation in the visions of God and the angelic host. Ezekiel's name hardly appears in the book; instead, God consistently refers to him as ben adam (Son of Man). Ezekiel is surprisingly silent for much of his tenure, often acting out symbolic actions. For the most part, redemption is not contingent on Israel's behavior; rather, God redeems Israel for His Name's sake. Even after Israel is redeemed and returns to her Land, the war of Gog will occur. It appears that Ezekiel's combination of prophecy and priesthood can explain many of the distinctive aspects of his book. Ezekiel's career is intended to parallel the priestly career he would have had in the Temple in Jerusalem in better times. By serving as a priest-prophet in exile, Ezekiel was able to encourage the J...
INTRODUCTION From a peshat perspective, the biblical text stands at the center of our inquiry as ... more INTRODUCTION From a peshat perspective, the biblical text stands at the center of our inquiry as we attempt to determine values from within the Bible. With thousands of years separating our cultural context from that of the Bible, however, it is often hard to distinguish textual messages from our own sensitivities and moral preferences. Consider the behavior of Abraham and Sarah in Genesis chapter 16. Although Hagar was insensitive toward Sarah, Sarah's harsh treatment of Hagar and Abraham's passive acquiescence create a painful tension. Does the narrative give any clues to its moral judgment of Abraham and Sarah? In this essay we consider the opinions of the classical commentators, who relied on the biblical text and early rabbinic traditions. We then turn to ancient Near Eastern parallels to gain insight into the historical-social setting of the Torah. At all times, the biblical text must remain the anchor for interpretation. TEXT AND MEDIEVAL COMMENTARY Sarai, Abram's...
Ra ab bb bi i H Ha ay yy yi im m A An ng ge el l t te ea ac ch he es s a ad dv va an nc ce ed d T... more Ra ab bb bi i H Ha ay yy yi im m A An ng ge el l t te ea ac ch he es s a ad dv va an nc ce ed d T Ta an nk ka ah h c co ou ur rs se es s t to o u un nd de er rg gr ra ad du ua at te es s a an nd d r ra ab bb bi in ni ic ca al l s st tu ud de en nt ts s a at t Y Ye es sh hi iv va a U Un ni iv ve er rs si it ty y, , a an nd d l le ec ct tu ur re es s w wi id de el ly y.. H He e h ha as s p pu ub bl li is sh he ed d o ov ve er r e ei ig gh ht ty y s sc ch ho ol la ar rl ly y a ar rt ti ic cl le es s, , p pr ri im ma ar ri il ly y i in n T T a an na ak kh h, , a an nd d i is s a au ut th ho or r o or r e ed di it to or r o of f t te en n b bo oo ok ks s. .
The Torah rooted out many ancient pagan superstitions. Professor Yehezkel Kaufmann (1889–1963) pi... more The Torah rooted out many ancient pagan superstitions. Professor Yehezkel Kaufmann (1889–1963) pinpointed several critical features that fundamentally distinguish Tanakh from ancient Near Eastern literature. There is one supreme God above who is the Creator of all nature, and there are no forces competing with God. God is absolutely free. God is timeless, ageless, nonphysical, and eternal. Nature is a stage on which God expresses His will in history. Rituals do not harness independent magical powers and do not work automatically. Endowed with free will, people can defy God and even drive God’s Presence away. Evil does not inhere in universe but rather is a product of people sinning, and it undermines creation. Absolute standards of good and justice exist, and
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Papers by Hayyim Angel