General Anatomy
CNS - III
Dr Muhammad Ressam Nazir
31 May 2012
Nervous System
Has three overlapping functions Sensory - receptors monitor changes (stimuli) and gathers information inside and outside the body Integrative - processes and interprets sensory input, makes decisions Motor - dictates a response by activating effector organs
Organization of the Nervous System
Central nervous system (CNS) Brain and spinal cord Integration and command center Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Outside the CNS Carries messages to and from the spinal cord and brain Consists of paired nerves extending from brain and spinal cord Peripheral nerves link all regions of the body to the CNS Ganglia are clusters of neuronal cell bodies
Nervous Tissue
Cells are densely packed and intertwined
Two main cell types
Neurons transmit electrical signals Support cells (neuroglial cells in CNS)
Nonexcitable Surround and wrap neurons
The Neuron
The human body contains billions of neurons Basic structural unit of the nervous system Specialized cells conduct electrical impulses along the plasma membrane Nerve impulses are called action potentials Other special characteristics Longevity can live and function for a lifetime Do not divide fetal neurons lose their ability to undergo mitosis; neural stem cells are an exception High metabolic rate require abundant oxygen and glucose, neurons die after 5 minutes without oxygen
The Cell Body
Nucleus and Perikaryon (around nucleus) Size of cell body varies from 5140m Contains usual organelles plus other structures
Chromatophilic bodies (Nissl bodies), seen because they stain darkly, actually clusters of rough ER and free ribosomes, renew membranes of the cell Neurofibrils bundles of intermediate filaments, form a network between chromatophilic bodies
Most neuronal cell bodies are located within the CNS in cluster called nuclei, protected by bones of the skull and vertebral column Ganglia clusters of cell bodies outside CNS, lie along nerves in the PNS
Structure of a Typical Large Neuron
Neuron Processes - Dendrites
Extensively branching from the cell body Transmit electrical signals toward the cell body Function as receptive sites for receiving signals from other neurons
Neuron Processes - Axons
Neuron has only one Impulse generator and conductor Transmits impulses away from the cell body No protein synthesis in axon
Neuron Processes
Neurofilaments, actin microfilaments, and microtubules Provide strength along length of axon Aid in the axonal transport of substances to and from the cell body Branches along length are infrequent - axon collaterals Multiple branches at end of axon Terminal branches (telodendria) End in knobs called axon terminals (also called end bulbs or boutons)
SUPPORTING CELLS
Supporting Cells
Six types of supporting cells
Four in the CNS Two in the PNS
Provide supportive functions for neurons Cover nonsynaptic regions of the neurons
Neuroglia
Neuroglial in the CNS
Neuroglia
Glial cells have branching processes and a central cell body Outnumber neurons 10 to 1 Make up half the mass of the brain Can divide throughout life
Neuroglia in the CNS (Cont.)
Astrocytes - most abundant
glial cell type
Sense when neurons release glutamate Extract blood sugar from capillaries for energy Take up and release ions in order to control environment around neurons Involved in synapse formation in developing neural tissue Produce molecules necessary for neuronal growth
Neuroglia in the CNS (Cont.)
Microglia smallest and least abundant glial cell
Phagocytes the macrophages of the CNS Engulf invading microorganisms and dead neurons Derive from blood cells called monocytes
Neuroglia in the CNS (Cont.)
Ependymal cells
Line the central cavity of the spinal cord and brain Bear cilia help circulate the cerebrospinal fluid
Oligodendrocytes
have few branches wrap their cell processes around axons in CNS, produce myelin sheaths
Neuroglia in the PNS
Satellite cells surround neuron cell bodies within ganglia Schwann cells surround axons in the PNS
Form myelin sheath around axons of the PNS
Figure 12.13
Unipolar
Structural Classes of Neurons
Possess one short, single process Dendrite, axon continuous Afferent neurons
Multipolar
Many dendrites, one axon Most common class of neuron
Bipolar
One dendrite, one axon Very rare Found in some special sensory organs
Neurons Classified by Structure
Neurons Classified by Structure (Cont.)
Neurons Classified by Structure (Cont.)
Functional:
Neuron Classification
Sensory (afferent) transmit impulses toward the CNS Motor (efferent) carry impulses away from the CNS Interneurons (association neurons) shuttle signals through CNS pathways
Functional Classification of Neurons
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Transmit impulses toward the CNS Virtually all are unipolar neurons Cell bodies in ganglia outside the CNS
Short, single process divides into
The central process runs centrally into the CNS The peripheral process extends peripherally to the receptors
Functional Classification of Neurons
Motor (efferent) neurons
Carry impulses away from the CNS to effector organs Most motor neurons are multipolar Cell bodies are within the CNS Form junctions with effector cells
Interneurons (association neurons) most are multipolar
Lie between motor and sensory neurons Confined to the CNS
Neurons Classified by Function
Myelin Sheaths
Segmented structures composed of the lipoprotein myelin Surround thicker axons
Form an insulating layer Prevent leakage of electrical current Increase the speed of impulse conduction
Nodes of Ranvier gaps along axon
Thick axons are myelinated Thin axons are unmyelinated, conduct impulses more slowly
Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
Formed by Schwann cells (neurolemmacytes) Develop during fetal period and in the first year of postnatal life Schwann cells wrap in concentric layers around the axon, cover the axon in a tightly packed coil of membranes Neurilemma - material external to myelin layers
Myelin Sheaths in the PNS
Figure 12.14a, b
Myelin Sheaths in the CNS
Oligodendrocytes form the myelin sheaths in the CNS
Have multiple processes Coil around several different axons
Figure 12.15b
Neuron Processes
Nerve impulse
Generated at the initial segment of the axon Conducted along the axon Releases neurotransmitters at axon terminals
Neurotransmitters excite or inhibit neurons
Neuron receives and sends signals
Synapses
Site at which neurons communicate Signals pass across synapse in one direction Presynaptic neuron - conducts signal toward a synapse Postsynaptic neuron - transmits electrical activity away from a synapse
Types of Synapses
Axodendritic - between axon terminals of one neuron and dendrites of another, most common type of synapse Axosomatic - between axons and neuronal cell bodies Axoaxonic, dendrodendritic, and dendrosomatic uncommon types of synapses
Synapses
Axodendritic synapses representative type Synaptic vesicles on presynaptic side Membrane-bound sacs containing neurotransmitters Mitochondria abundant in axon terminals Synaptic cleft - separates the plasma membrane of the two neurons
Synaptic Cleft: Information Transfer
1) Nerve impulses reach the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron and open Ca2+ channels 2) Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis 3) Neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron 4) Postsynaptic membrane permeability changes due to opening of ion channels, causing an excitatory or inhibitory effect
THE END
