Unit 2: Fluid Flow

PHAR 214
 Introduction
• Fluid is considered to be a mass of a substance formed by a series of
layers.
• Fluid includes liquid and gas.
• When an attempt is made to change its shape, the layers of fluid
slide over one another, until a new shape is attained.
• Fluid is relieved off the stresses that it encountered during the flow.
• During the change of shape shear stresses will exist, the magnitude
of which depends upon the viscosity of the fluid and the rate of
sliding.
• But when a final shape is reached, all shear stresses will disappear.
• A fluid at equilibrium is free from shear stresses.
 Introduction
• Fluid flow is defined as the flow of substance that
do not permanently resist distortion.
• Flow of fluids is involved in a number of areas of
Pharmaceuticals industries like
– Transportation of air and water in production areas
– Mixing of solids and liquids in case of suspension
– Packing of semisolids in containers
• The subject of fluid flow can be divided into
– Fluid Statics
– Fluid Dynamics
 Properties of Fluid Flow
• Viscosity
• Surface Tension
• Compressibility
 Viscosity
• Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's
resistance to flow.
• It describes the internal friction of a
moving fluid.
• A fluid with large viscosity resists
motion because its molecular makeup
gives it a lot of internal friction.
• A fluid with low viscosity flows
easily because its molecular makeup
results in very little friction when it is
in motion.
 Viscosity
• Let us consider a “block” of liquid
consisting of parallel plates of molecules,
similar to a deck of cards, as shown in the
figure. F A
dv
• The bottom layer is considered to be fixed in
dr
place.
• If the top plane of liquid is moved is moved
at a constant velocity, each lower layer with
move with a velocity directly proportional to
its distance from the stationary bottom layer.
• The infinitesimal change in velocity in
between two adjacent layer = dv
• The infinitesimal distance in between two
adjacent layer = dr
 Viscosity
• Velocity gradient or Rate of Shear = dv/dr
• The force per unit area (F/A) required to
Slope = 1/ 
bring about flow is called shearing stress.
Rate of
\ Shearing Stress = F/A Shear
(dv/dr)
• From experiment it was found that rate of
shear is directly proportional to shearing
stress.
Shearing stress (F/A)
• i.e. F/A α dv/dr
• F/A =  dv/dr
where  = coefficient of viscosity.
 Unit of Viscosity
• Unit of viscosity
– The unit of viscosity is poise.
– F is expressed in dyne
– A is expressed in cm2.
– dr is expressed in cm and dv is expressed in cm/s.
η
F dr dynes x cm
 2 
dyne sec
 = poise
g x cm/sec 2 x sec

g
A dv cm x cm/sec cm 2 cm 2 cm sec
• A more convenient unit of work is the
centipoise (cp plural cps). 1 cp = 1/100 poise
 Surface Tension
• Surface tension is a contractive tendency of the surface
of a fluid that allows it to resist an external force.
• Fluid tends to attend the minimum surface area as
possible.
Why?
• The reason behind this is that while a molecule inside the
fluid bulk is pulled in each and every direction by the
adjacent molecules But at the surface of the fluid , the
case is different. the adhesive forces causes downward
pull on the molecule due to cohesion.
• So the molecule on the surface tends to move down.
Surface Tension
 Compressibility
• A properties of fluid is that they can be
compressed.
• Gases are more compressible than liquids
because there is more space between particles.
• Not all fluids can be compressed equally.
– Water is more compressible than oils, which is
why oil is used in brake lines of car.
 Fluid Statics
• Fluid static's deals with the fluids at rest in
equilibrium
• Behavior of liquid at rest, Nature of pressure it
exerts and the variation of pressure at different
layers in the liquid are relevant aspects.
 Pressure difference
• The difference in pressure between layers of liquid.
• The pressure difference between any two points can be
measured by the distance between those points in fluid.
 Application
• The principle of fluid statics is employed in
working of manometers.
 Derivation for fluid statics
• Consider a stationary
column of fluid having
pressure acting at
surface Ps pascal
• The stationary column
is maintained at
constant pressure by
applying pressure P at
point A.
• Let the cross-section of
column be S m2
 Derivation contd…
• Consider point 1 and 2 in stationary column at
height h1 and h2
• The force acting below and above the point 1
and 2 are evaluated.
Now,
Force acting on liquid at point 1 = force on the
surface + force exerted by the liquid above the
point 1
 Derivation contd..
• Pressure at point 1 * surface area = pressure at
surface * surface area + mass * acceleration
P1*S = Ps*S + mg = Ps*S + h1*S*ρ*g
P1 = Ps + h1ρg
• Similarly at pressure at point 2
P2 = Ps + h2ρg
The difference in pressure between two points
P2-P1 = (h2-h1)ρg
ΔP = Δhρg
 Fluid Dynamics
• Fluid dynamics deals with
the study of fluids in motion
• This knowledge is
important for liquids, gels,
ointments which will
change their flow behavior
when exposed to different
stress conditions
 Applications
• Identification of type of flow is important in
– Manufacture of dosage forms
• Materials undergo processes like mixing, flowing
through pipes and getting filled in containers. Flow
related changes influence in selection of Equipments.
– Handling of drugs for administration
• The syringeability of medicine, pouring of liquids and
extrusion of ointments from tube etc. depends upon
changes in flow behavior of dosage forms.
 Nature of fluids Flow
• Turbulent flow:
– The particles of fluid moves in
random directions
– There is continuous transfer of
momentum to adjacent layer.

• Streamline flow:
– Fluid particles move in layers or
laminar with one layer sliding over
the other.
– There is no exchange of fluid
particles from one layer to another.
 Reynolds Experiment
• Assembly of Reynolds experiment
 Reynolds Experiment
• A glass tube is connected to a reservoir of water.
• The rate of flow of water through tube can be
increase or decrease at will through a valve.
• A reservoir of colored solution is connected to
one end of the glass tube with the help of nozzle.
• Colored solution can be introduced into the glass
tube as a fine stream.
• From the above setup, the following observations
may be made and conclusions can be drawn:
 Reynolds Experiment
• When the velocity of water is low, the thread of
colored water maintains its identity throughout the
tube.
• By introducing similar jets of colored water at
different points in the cross section of the glass tube,
it can be noted that no part of the tube exhibits the
signs of mixing.
• The color streams are seen as parallel lines.
• Flow of water is considered to be viscous or
stereamline and laminar.
 Reynolds Experiment
• When the velocity of water is increased the
thread of colored water disappear and the
entire mass of water gets uniformly colored.
• It indicates complete mixing of solution and
flow of water is considered to be turbulent.
 Reynolds Experiment
• The change over of the flow from laminar to
turbulent is a critical factor.
• Critical velocity is defined as average velocity
of any fluid at which viscous flow changes
into turbulent flow.
 Reynolds Number
In Reynolds experiment the flow conditions are affected by
Diameter of pipe
Average velocity
Density of liquid
Viscosity of the fluid
This four factors are combined in one way as Reynolds number
Reynolds number is obtained by the following equation
Duρ
η

INERTIAL FORCES MASS X ACCELERATION OF LIQUID FLOWING

= ------------------------------ = ----------------------------------------------------------
SHEAR STRESS X AREA
VISCOUS FORCES
Inertial forces are due to mass and the velocity of the fluid particles trying to
diffuse the fluid particles
 viscous force if the frictional force due to the viscosity of the fluid which
make the motion of the fluid in parallel.
 Reynolds Number
 At low velocities the inertial forces are less when compared to
the frictional forces
 Resulting flow will be viscous in nature
 Other hand when inertial forces are predominant the fluid
layers break up due to the increase in velocity hence turbulent
flow takes place.
 If Re < 2000 the flow is said to be laminar
 If Re > 4000 the flow is said to be turbulent
 If Re lies between 2000 to 4000 the flow change between
laminar to turbulent
 Applications
 Reynolds number is used to predict the nature of the flow
 Stocks law equation is modified to include Reynolds number to
study the rate of sedimentation in suspension
• Variations in the velocity of flow across the cross section
– When velocity is plotted against the distance from the wall following
conclusions can be drawn
 The flow of fluid in the middle of the pipe is faster then the fluid
near to the wall
 The velocity of fluid approaches zero as the pipe – wall is
approached
 At the actual surface of the pipe – wall the velocity of the fluid
is zero
 The velocity of the fluid is zero at the wall surface there should
be some layer in viscous flow near the pipe wall which acts as
stagnant layer
 if the flow is turbulent at the center and viscous at the surface a
buffer layer exist, this buffer layer changes between the viscous
to turbulent flow
 Bernoulli’s Theorem
 When the principals of the law of energy is applied to the flow of the
fluids the resulting equation is called Bernoulli's theorem
 Consider a pump working under isothermal conditions between points A
and B
 Bernoulli's theorem states that in a steady state the total energy per unit
mass consists of pressure, kinetic and potential energies are constant

Pump

Friction energy = F
 Bernoulli’s Theorem
 At point a one kilogram of liquid is assumed to be entering at this point, pressure energy at
joule can be written as

Pressure energy = Pa /g ρ A
–Where
–Pa = Pressure at point A
–g = Acceleration due to gravity
–ρ A = Density of the liquid
Potential energy of a body is defined as the energy possessed by the body by the virtue of its
position
Potential energy = XA
Kinetic energy of a body is defined as the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its motion,
kinetic energy = UA2 / 2g
Total energy at point A = Pressure energy + Potential energy+ Kinetic energy

Total energy at point A = Pa /g ρ A +XA + UA2 / 2g

 According to the Bernoulli's theorem the total energy at point A
is constant
 Total energy at point A = Pa /g ρ A +XA + UA2 / 2g = Constant
After the system reaches the steady state, whenever one
kilogram of liquid enters at point A, another one kilogram of
liquid leaves at point B

 Total energy at point B = PB /g ρ B +XB + UB2 / 2g

INPOUT = OUT PUT

Pa /g ρ A +XA + UA2 / 2g =PB /g ρ B +XB + UB2 / 2g
 Theoretically all kids of the energies involved in fluid
flow should be accounted, pump has added certain
amount of energy
Energy added by the pump = + wJ
 During the transport some energy is converted to heat due
to frictional Forces
Loss of energy due to friction in the line = FJ
Pa /g ρ A +XA + UA2 / 2g – F + W = PB /g ρ B +XB + UB2 / 2g

This equation is called as Bernoulli's equation

 Application
 Used in the measurement of rate of fluid flow
 It applied in the working of the centrifugal
pump, in this kinetic energy is converted in to
pressure.
 Pressure Head
• The terms in Bernoulli's equation represents energy
and supposed to have units of energy.
• But numerically these terms give the units of meters
• Energy terms can be measured in units of meter
which is a unit of height. Hence, these terms are
known as Heads
• The pressure heads is defined as the height of
column of liquid of density which is numerically
equal to pressure terms.
 Pressure Head
• The units of height can be obtained by considering
the pressure energy terms
• Pressure energy = Pa /g ρ A
 Pressure Head

• Thus pressure energy is in meter i.e. as a height.

• Thus height is termed as head in the discussion in hydraulics. Hence
pressure energy is called pressure heads.
• In analogous manner, the different heads in Bernoulli's equation is
– Potential heads (X)
– Velocity heads (u2/2g)
– Pressure heads (p/ρg)
– Friction head (f)
– Head added to pump (w)
 Energy Loss
 According to the law of conversation of energy,
energy balance have to be properly calculated
 Fluids experiences energy losses in several ways
while flowing through pipes, they are
 Frictional losses
 Losses in the fitting
 Enlargement losses
 Contraction losses
 Frictional Losses
 During flow of fluids frictional forces causes a loss in pressure.
 Type of fluid flow also influences the losses.
 In general pressure drop will be
PRESSURE DROP α VELOCITY (u)

α Density of fluid(ρ)
α Length of the pipe (L)
α 1 / diameter of the pipe (D)
 These relationships are proposed in Fanning equation for calculating
friction losses ∆p = 2fu2Lρ / D
f= frictional factor
 For viscous flow pressure drop Hagen –Poiseullie equation
= 32 Luη / D2
 Losses in Fitting
 Fanning equation is applicable for the
losses in straight pipe.
 When fitting are introduced into a
straight pipe, They cause disturbance
in the flow, Which result in the
additional loss of energy
 Losses in fitting may be due to
 Change in direction
 Change in the type of fittings
Equivalent fitting = Equivalent fitting x
internal diameter
For globe valve = 300 x 50
= 15 meter
That means globe valve is equal to 15
meters straight line, so this length is
substituted in fanning equation to
obtain losses due to fittings.
 Enlargement Loss
 If the cross section of the pipe enlarges gradually, the fluid adapts
itself to the changed section without any disturbance. So no loss of
energy
 If the cross section of the pipe changes suddenly then loss in energy is
observed due to eddies. These are greater at this point than straight
line pipe
Than u2< u1
For sudden enlargement = ∆ H = (u1 – u2)2 / 2g
∆ H = loss of head due to sudden enlargement
 Contraction Losses
 If the cross section of the pipe is reduced suddenly the
fluid flow is disturbed, the diameter of the fluid stream
is less than the initial column this point is known as
vena contracta
Sudden contraction loss =
The constant K values depends on the relatives areas of two
sections
Fluid Flow and Pressure Measurement

• Pressure measurement: (Classification of

manometers)
– Simple Manometer
– U tube Manometer and Modifications
(Differential/Inclined)
– Bourdon Gauge
Fluid Flow and Pressure Measurement

• Measurement of flow: (Classification of flow

meters)
– Venturimeter
– Orificemeter
– Pitot tube
– Rotameter
– Current flow meters
 Manometers
• Manometers are the devices used for
measuring the pressure difference
• Different type of manometers are there they
are:
– Simple manometer
– Differential manometer
– Inclined manometer
 Simple Manometers
• Most commonly used one
• It consists of a glass U shaped tube
filled with a liquid A- of density ρA
kg /meter cube and above A the
arms are filled with liquid B of
density ρB
• The liquid A and B are immiscible
and the interference can be seen
clearly
• If two different pressures are
applied on the two arms the
meniscus of the one liquid will be
higher than the other
 Let pressure at point 1 will be P1 Pascal's and point 5 will be
P2 Pascal's
 The pressure at point 2 can be written as

= P1+ (m + R ) ρ B g
(m + R ) = distance from 3 to 5
Since the points 2 and 3 are at same height
the pressure at 3 can be written as
Pressure at 3 =P1+ (m + R ) ρ B g
Pressure at 4 can be written as
Pressure at 4 = P2 + gm ρ B
= P1+ ρ B ( m + R ) g- ρ a R g
Both the equations should be equal
P2 + gm ρ B = P1+ ρ B ( m + R ) g- ρ a R g
P1 – P2 = gm ρ B - ρ B ( m + R) g + ρ A Rg
∆P = gm ρ B - gm ρ B - R ρ B g + R ρ A
 Simple Manometers
• Conclusion:
∆P =R (ρ A- ρ B )g
 From above equation we can conclude that:
 It is easy to measure R value i.e. difference in levels of liquids A
in two limbs.
 The value of pressure difference is independent of value of m
and dimension of U tube.
 when wide range of pressure are applied; the sensitivity of
liquid employed in the measurement is important.
 For example if pressure difference are large mercury can be used
as manometric liquid (liquid A).
 If pressure differences are small alcohol, water can be used as
manometric liquid
 Simple Manometers
• Application:
– Helps in measuring consumption of gases in the
chemical reactions
– Used in conjunction with flow meters for
measurement of flow of liquids.
 Differential Manometers
 These manometers are suitable for
measurement of small pressure differences
 It is also known as two – Fluid U- tube
manometer
 It contains two immiscible liquids A and B
having nearly same densities
 The U tube contains of enlarged chambers on
both limbs,
 Using the principle of simple manometer the
pressure differences can be written as
∆P =P1 –P2 =R (ρc – ρA) g
 P1 P2

1 7
Liquid C
a
2 6

b
Liquid B

R
3 4

Liquid A
 Differential Manometers
• Applications
– Useful for measurements of small pressure
difference
– Is a sensitive device and useful for measuring even
small gas pressure (heads)
 Inclined Manometers
• Many applications require accurate measurement of
low pressure such as drafts and very low differentials,
primarily in air and gas installations.
• In these applications the manometer is arranged with
the indicating tube inclined, as in Figure, therefore
providing an expanded scale.
• This enables the measurement of small pressure
changes with increased accuracy.

P1 –P2 = g R (ρ A - ρ B) sin α
 Measurement of Rate of Flows
 Methods of Measurements:
Direct weighing
Hydrodynamics Method
• Orifice meter
• Venturi meter
• Pitot meter
• Rota meter
Direct Displacement meter
• Disc meters
• Current meters
 Direct weighing
– The liquid flowing through a pipe is collected for specific
period at any point and weighed or measured, and the rate
of flow can be determined.
– Gases can not be determined by this method
 Orifice Meter
• Principle:
 Orifice meter is a thin plate containing a narrow and sharp aperture.
 When a fluid stream is allowed to pass through a narrow constriction the
velocity of the fluid increase compared to up stream
 This results in decrease in pressure drop and the difference in the
pressure may be read from a manometer

The velocity of the fluid at thin constriction may be written as

U0 =C 0 √ 2g ∆H
∆H = can be measured by manometer
C0 = constant
U0 = velocity of fluid at the point of orifice meter
 Orifice Meter
• Construction
– It is consider to be a thin plate containing a sharp
aperture through which fluid flows
– Normally it is placed between long straight pipes
– For present discussion plate is introduced into pipe
and manometer is connected at points A and B
 Orifice Meter
• Working
 Orifice meter is referred as the variable head meter, i.e it measure the variation in
the pressure across a fixed construction placed in the path of flow.
 When fluid is allowed to pass through the orifice the velocity of the fluid at point B
increase, as a result at point A pressure will be increased.
 Difference in the pressure is measured by manometer
 Bernoulli's equation is applied to point A and point B for experimental conditions

√U02 – UA2 =C0 √2g. ∆H

U0 = velocity of fluid at orifice
UA = velocity of fluid at point A
C0 = constant
 If the diameter of the orifice is 1/5 or less of the pipe diameter then UA is neglected
 Orifice Meter
• Mathematical treatment
– Consider a fluid flowing at certain velocity µ A
– If the edge of orifice is sharp, fluid does not lose
velocity at once while passing through the orifice.
– Two points A & B on either side of orifice is
chosen
– and Bernoulli's equation is applied.
• Assumptions :
– Let the section of pipe is
horizontal so that heights
of points A and B are
same.
– Let the friction loss is
negligible
– The fluid flowing
through the liquid is
same
– No work is being done
on liquid by liquid as no
pump is used.
• Normally, the diameter of fluid stream would be less
than the diameter of orifice, the minimum crossection
point is known as vena contracta.
• In practice, the diameter of stream at vena contracta is
not known but orifice diameter is known.
• A constant C₀ is included in above equation in order
to correct the velocity differences at orifice and vena
contracta and also include some frictional less.

• If the diameter of orifice is 1/5th of the pipe diameter

or less, µA can be neglected.
 Orifice Meter
Applications
 Velocity at either of the point A and B can be
measured
 Volume of liquid flowing per hour can be
determined
 Venturi Meter
• Principle
– It consists of two tapered section in the pipeline with a gradual
constriction at its centre.
– When fluid stream is allowed to pass through the narrow throat,
the velocity of fluid increases at the venturi as compared to fluid
upstream. This results in corresponding decrease in pressure
head.
– Bernoulli’s theorem provides the basis for correlating the increase
in velocity head with decrease in pressure head between two
points.
– The difference in pressure head may be read from a manometer.
U v = C v √ 2g . ∆H
Uv is velocity at throat point
Cv is coefficient = 0.98
 Venturi Meter
• Construction
– A venturi meter consist of two tapered section inserted in a
pipeline.
– Normally it is placed between long straight pipes so that
other fittings will not alter the flow rate being measured.
– The upstream cone is normally shorter than the down
stream.
– The tapers are smooth and gradual so that eddies in
downstream is absent and no power loss is observed.
– A manometer is connected at points A and B as shown in
fig.
 Throat of
Venturi

Inlet
section

manometer
 Venturi Meter
• Working
– It is referred as variable head meter.
– It measures the variable differential pressure across a fixed
constriction placed in the path of flow consisting of a
constant area.
– The velocity of fluid is increased at the throat due to
constriction which results in decresed pressure in up-
stream cone .
– The pressure drop in upstream cone is utilized to measure
the rate of flow using a manometer.
 Venturi Meter
Application:
 Commonly used for liquids esp. water
 Can also be used for measurement of gases.
Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Need technical expert
 Not flexible it is permanent
Advantages
 Power loss is less
 Head loss is negligible
 Why Venturi meter if Orifice
meter is available?
• Main disadvantage of orifice meter is power loss due
to sudden contraction with consequent eddies on
other side of orifice plate
• We can minimize power loss by gradual contraction
of pipe
• Venturi meter consist of two tapperd (conical section)
inserted in pipeline
• Friction losses and eddies can be minimized by this
arrangement.
 Difference between Orifice and
Venturi meter
Orifice meter Venturimeter
1. Installation is cheap and easy. 1. Installation is costly. It is less
2. The power loss is easier than orifice meter.
considerable in long run. (Disadvantage)
3. They are best used for testing 2. Power loss is less in long run
purposes or other cases where even negligible (Advantage)
the power loss is not a factor, 3. Venturimeters are used for
as in steam lines. permanent installation.
4. Installing a new orifice plate 4. Installation of a different
with a different opening is a opening require replacement
simple matter. of the whole venturimeter.
(Disadvantage)
 Pitot Tube
• Principle
– Consist of a sensing element with a small constriction
compared to size of a flow channel.
– When sensing element is insert centre of stream, the velocity
of flow is increased and pressure head decreased.
– Tube at right angles measure pressure head and tube pointed
upstream measure velocity head.
– According to Bernoulli’s equation, velocity head of fluid may
be obtained by equation

Where u is velocity of the flow at the point of insertion

∆Hp is difference in head from manometer.
 Pitot Tube
• Construction
– The pitot tube is a device to measure the local velocity along
a streamline.
– The configurations of the device are shown in the figure.
– The size of sensing element is small compared to size of flow
channel.
– The point of measurement may be at the centre of the channel.
– The manometer has two arms.
• One arm ‘a’ is placed at the center of the pipe and opposite to the
direction of flow of fluid.
• The second arm ‘b’ is connected with the wall of the pipe. The
difference of liquid in two arms of the manometer is the reading.
A .a  .a 
.B
A
B .
b b
R R
' '

Fig 1 Fig 2
 Pitot Tube
• Working
– When two tube are inserted into the pipe.
– Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity head of flow.
Velocity of flow is increased at narrow constriction results in
decreased pressure.
– Tube at right angles measure pressure head and tube pointed
upstream measure velocity head.
– According to Bernoulli’s equation, velocity head of fluid
may be obtained by equation

(Theoretical velocity)
 Pitot Tube
• Actual velocity is given by:

Where Cv is coefficient of pitot tube.

• Normally Pitot tube measures the velocity at one
particular point.
• It may be inserted at center of pipe to measure the
maximum velocity.
• Adjustable Pitot tube may be used to take readings from
different points in cross section to measure average
velocity by graphical integration
 Disadvantage of Pitot tube
• It does not give the average velocity directly.
• When velocity of gases are measured the
reading are extremely small.
• In these cases some form of multiplying gauge
like differential manometer and inclined
manometers are used.
 Rotameter
• Rotameter ia a variable area meter i.e. it
measures the area of flow so as to produce a
constant head differential.
• Rotameters are known as area meters.
 Rotameter
• Principle
– Rotameter consists of a vertical, tapered and transparent
tube in which plummet is placed.
– During fluid flow through the tube, the plummet rises and
fall because of variation in flow.
– As a result, the area of annular space between the plummet
and the tube varies.
– The head loss across the annulus is equal to the weight of
plummet.
– The upper edge of plummet is used as an index to note the
reading on the tappered tube.
– This value indicates the flow of the fluid
 Rotameter
• Construction
– Rotameter consists of a vertical tappered tube which is
mounted with a narrow end down.
– The tube is usually made of glass on which a linear scale is
etched.
– A solid plummet is placed in tube.
– The diameter of plummet is smaller than the narrowest part of
the tube.
– Floats of different densities are available so that a 200 fold
range of flow can be measured accurately.
– Floats may be made of lead, aluminum, glass and plastic.
 Rotameter
• Working
– As the flow is upward through a tappered tube, the flow of
fluid varies.
– The rise and fall of plummet depends on rate of flow.
– During flow, area of the annular space between plummet
and tube varies.
– The head loss across the annulus is equal to the weight of
plummet.
– The flow may be read using upper edge of plummet as an
index
– The area is properly calibrated to the flow rate.
 Rotameter
• Advantages
– The flow rates can be measured directly.
– Measured in linear scale and
– Constant and small head loss.
 Direct Displacement Meter
• Displacement meters covers devices for
measuring liquids based on the displacement
of a moving member by a stream of liquid.
• Used for measuring domestic water supplies.
• These meters may be classified as disc meters
and current meters.
Direct Displacement Meter
 Direct Displacement Meter
• Principle:
– Used for measuring flow rate of fluid in small lines.
– A stream of water enters the meter and strikes the
moving member (disc or bucket)’
– The rate of rotation of moving member is
proportional to velocity of water passing through
the meter.
– The displacement of moving member is transmitted
through a train of gears to the counting dial present
in top of meter.
 Direct Displacement Meter
• Advantages
– It sensed the total
volume of fluid
that has passed
though it.
– Volume divided
by definite period
gives average
flow rate.
 Valves
• Valves are used to control the rate of fluid in a pipe
• Valves should withstand
– Pressure
– Temperature
– Distortion
• It should made up of brass, iron, bronze, and cast iron
• Examples
– Plug clock valve
– Globe valve
– Gate valve
– Diaphragm valve
– Quick opening valve
– Check valve
 Plug Clock Valve
• It consists of casting body in to which a conical plug is
fixed
• The plug has an opening through liquid will flow
• Packing material is included around the stem to close it
• Uses
– Used for handling of gases
– Used for wide opening or complete closing
• Dis advantages
– Not suitable for water due to the material of which made
– Some times plug will come out easily
– For slight rotation also grate change in the flow so difficult to
operate
 Globe Valve
• Globe valve consists of a globular body with a horizontal
internal portion
• Passage of fluid is through a circular opening which can be
opened and closed by inserting the disc
• Disc is called as seating disc
• It can be rotated freely on the stem
• Uses
– This should be used in pipe with size not more than 50
millimeters
• Disadvantage
– Rust, discomfort in opening of valve due to sludge
Globular body

disc
 Gate Valve
• Wedge shaped inclined seat type of gate is commonly
used, pressure on the gate is controlling factor in large
valves.
• Two type of gate valves are there
– Non rising stem valve thread of the valve stem engages the gate.
Gate can be raised and lowered without movement of the stem.
– Rising stem valve length of the stem is more and gate and stem
are single piece.
• Advantages
– Available in large sizes, different designs.
– In minimizes the differential pressure during opening and
closing.
 Diaphragm Valves
 It consists of flexible physical barrier, valves are made of natural
rubber or synthetic rubber faced with Teflon
 These are more suitable for fluids containing suspended solids
and it can be easily sterilized.

Stem

Diaphragm
 Quick opening valves
• It is a type of gate valve in which stem is
threaded.
• QO valves have smooth stems and are opened
or closed by lever handle in a simple
operation.
• These valves are convenient but involves a
danger of water hammer.
 Check Valves
• These valves are used when unidirectional flow is
desirable.
• Protective mechanism is included to prevent the reversal
of flow.
• Automatically opened when the flow of fluids builds up
the pressure.
• Types
– Swing check
– Ball check
– Lift check, vertical
 PUMPS
• Pump is a device that moves the fluid through
a pipe.
• Minimum configuration of a pump:
• Cylinder
• piston or plunger
• power to drive the piston and valves.
Classification of Pump
 RECIPROCATING PUMP PISTON
TYPE
• Construction
– The pump in the figure has single water cylinder
hence called simplex pump.
– The pump consists:
• A piston consisting essentially of two discs A1 and A2 with
rings of packing B between them.
• The piston operates within a removable bornze liner, C.
• The lower row of valves, E1 and E2 are suction valves, in
the upper row F1 and F2 are discharge valves.
• The overall assembly is packed within an air-tight casing.
• Operation
– If the piston is moving from left to right, it will create a suction
on the left hand side which will open the left hand suction
valves E1 and close the left hand discharge valves F1.
– At the same time a pressure is develop on the right hand side
which will close the E2 suction valves and open F2 discharge
valves.
– This pump is double acting , because it displaces water on both
halves of the cycle.
– The pump requires minimum 4 valves.
• Uses
– This type of pump is suitable for pressure heads upto 150 to
200 ft and for any liquids that are not viscous, corrosive or
abrasive.
– The valve type is deck valves, hence it cannot withstand very
high pressure.
 RECIPROCATING DUPLEX PUMP
• Construction
– The pump in the figure consists of two water
cylinders, hence called duplex pump.
– The pump consists:
• Two plungers are packed inside the cylinders. Two
stationary packing ring in between the plungers and the
cylinders.
• Two suction valves, C1,C2 and two discharge valves D1,
D2 are provided.
• the cylinder is divided into two parts by a partition F.
• Operation
– Both the plungers act synchronously.
– When left plunger A1, is producing suction, right plunger A2
increases the pressure.
– When plunger A1 produce suction pressure, suction valve C1
opens and discharge valve D1 remains closed.
– At the same time plunger A2 produce pressure so discharge
valve D2 opens while suction valve C2 remains closed.
• Use
– When pump liquids contains suspended matter that may
abrade the packing so that replacement are more frequent
then this type of pump is useful.
– Since the valves are of pot-valve type hence can be used
under high pressure.
 RECIPROCATING DIAPHRAGM
PUMP
• Construction
– In the figure of diaphragm
pump instead of a piston or
plunger it employs a flexible
diaphragm with a discharge
valve attached to the shaft
the discharge valve is flap
type
– It also has a suction valve.
• Operation
– When the shaft is moved upward the chamber C experiences
partial vacuum and suction valve is opened and liquid comes
in.
– When the shaft goes down the discharge valve opens and
suction valve closes – the liquid comes out of the pump.
• Uses / Advantages
– Its construction is rugged and simple and repairs are easily
made
– It is suited for the most severe services.
– It is the most satisfactory pump available for handling liquids
with large amounts of solids in suspension under low
pressure.
– By adjusting the diaphragm the stroke may be varied and the
discharge controlled within accurate limits.
 Rotatory Pump
• Liquids can be transported based on the
mechanism of rotation of one or more elements
within a stationary casing.
• Consists of two circular discs with lobes which
are geared to each other or single circular
impeller with vanes
• Two types
– Rotary positive displacement pump
– Centrifugal pump
 ROTARY POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
PUMP (GEAR PUMP)
• Construction
– The pump consists of
essential two gears,
which match with each
other and which run in
close contact with the
casing.
– The number of teeth of
the gears varies from two
or more in each wheel.
• Operation
– Slugs of liquids are cut between the gear teeth and
the casing, carried around next to the casing and
forced out through the discharge pipe.

• Use
– Such a pump handles viscous or heavy liquids.
– They are used to handle quite stiff pastes, semifluid
waxes and similar material can be handled with those
pumps when the speed is not too high
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
• The liquid is sucked from the center of an
impeller and thrown centrifugally upwards to
the periphery from where liquid is discharged.
• Types
– Volute type
– Turbine type
 Volute centrifugal Pump
• Construction
• The simplest form of the centrifugal pump is the
single-stage single suction, open runner volute.
• The most important member of the centrifugal pump is
the impeller or runner.
• This consist essentially of a series of curved vanes
extending from a hub maintained in the casing of the
pumps in such a way that the two halves of the casing
are as near by as possible in contact with the surface of
these vanes
• Operations
– Water entering at the suction connection is thrown
outward by the rotation of the vanes.
– As the liquid leaves the vanes and enters the volute
of the casing , the velocity is increased according to
Bernoulli’s theorem therefore, its pressure must be
correspondingly increased and this increase in
pressure is the source of the head developed by the
pump.
• Disadvantages
– power losses: due to turbulence
– These are cheap pumps and therefore not accurately
finished.
 TURBINE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
• Construction
– Turbine pumps
consists of an
impeller with vanes, a
diffusion ring – they
are fitted in a casing.
– The diffusion ring is
stationary.
– The liquid is
discharged in a volute
• Operation
– The diffusion ring in a turbine pump cause the
liquid to make change in direction smoothly and
without shocks or eddies.
– The liquid issuing from the tip of the impeller is
caught in these passages and turned gradually and
smoothly into the discharge volute.
• Use
– Turbine pumps is reserved for clear, non-viscous
and non-corrosive liquids.
Flow of Water in Pharma Industry
 Water for Pharmaceutical Use
• Systems must be properly validated / qualified
• Water for parenteral use should not be
contaminated with pyrogens or endotoxins
• Specifications and periodic testing are required
• Potential for microbial growth
• Like any starting material, production of water
should conform to Good Manufacturing
Practice (GMP) norms
 Types of water used in
pharmaceutical processes
• Purified water
• Water for Injections – PFW & WFI
• Softened Water
• Water for Final Rinse
• Pure, or clean Steam
• Water for cooling Autoclaves
Pretreatment –
schematic drawing
float
operated excess water recycled
from deioniser
activated
carbon
To water
valve
air filter sand filter filter softener &
DI plant
spray ball

Water is kept raw water in break tank

circulating

cartridge
filter
centrifugal pump 5 micrometers
air break to drain

« S” trap to sewer
 Typical deionizer schematic
from water softener
HCl NaOH

6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

Water
must be Cationic column Anionic column Cartridge Cartridge
UV light filter 5 µm filter 1 µm
kept
circulatin Eluates to
neutralization
Ozone generator

g plant
Hygienic pump
Return to deionizer

Outlets or storage.
Drain line

Air break to sewer

High pressure Low pressure

Semi-permeable
Feed

membrane
water

under
pressure
Purified water
raw water

Reject
water

Permeate
water
drain or recycle