BASIC MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Dr. SMITA PADHAN

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF PRODUCTION ENGINEERING
VEER SURENDRA SAI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, ODISHA, BURLA-
768018
Module I
 Manufacturing Process: Technological
Application of physical and chemical processes to alter
geometry, properties and appearances of raw material to finished
products to be used for some purpose.

Processed
part
Raw material Manufacturing
process
Scrap and
wasre
• Machinary
• Tooling
• Power
• Labour
Manufacturing:Economic
• Transformation of material in to items of greater value
by one or more processing or assembly operation.

Starting Material in
material processing(va Processed part
lue added)
 (Foundry)
There are four basic manufacturing processes for producing desired shape of a product. These
are casting, machining, joining (welding, mechanical fastners, epoxy, etc.), and deformation
processes.
 Casting process exploit the fluidity of a metal in liquid state as it takes shape and solidifies in a
mould. It’s the primary manufacturing process.
 Machining processes provide desired shape with good accuracy and precision but tend to
waste material in the generation of removed portions.
 Joining processes permit complex shapes to be constructed from simpler components and
have a wide domain of applications.
 Deformation processes exploit a remarkable property of metals, which is their ability to flow
plastically in the solid state without deterioration of their properties. With the application of
suitable pressures, the material is moved to obtain the desired shape with almost no wastage.
The required pressures are generally high and the tools and equipment needed are quite
7

expensive. Large production quantities are often necessary to justify the process.
Metal Casting Process:
Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process. It is the first step in making most of the
products for which it’s called basic manufacturing process.
Steps to be followed for a casting operation:
a)Making mould cavity
b)Liquefy or melt the material by properly heating it in a suitable furnace.
c)Liquid or molten metal is poured into a prepared mould cavity
d)allowed to solidify
e)product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed and made to shape
More attention should be given on the following for successful casting operation:
(i)Preparation of moulds of patterns
(ii)Melting and pouring of the liquefied metal
(iii)Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
(iv)Defects and inspection
 Advantages of casting process:
 Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by
this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can
be minimized.
 Possible to cast both ferrous and non ferrous materials
 Tools are very simple and expensive
 Useful for small lot production
 Weight reduction in design
 No directional property
• There are certain parts (like turbine blades) made from metals and alloys that can only be
processed this way. Turbine blades: Fully casting + last machining.
•Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations:-
 Accuracy and surface finish are not very good for final application
 Difficult to remove defects due to presence of moisture
 Metal casting is a labour intensive process
 Automation: a question

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Application:-
Cylindrical bocks, wheels, housings, pipes, bells, pistons, piston rings, machine tool
beds etc.

Typical sand mould

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Mould Section and casting nomenclature

 Important casting terms
Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom,
in which the mould is formed. Depending upon the
position of the flask in the moulding structure, it is referred
to by various names such as:
drag – lower moulding flask,
cope – upper moulding flask,
cheek – intermediate moulding flask
used in three piece moulding.

Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mould cavity is made with the help of pattern.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the mould.
Moulding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture of silica
sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.
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Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mould cavity to give a
better surface finish to the castings.
Bottom board – Board used to start mould making (wood)
Backing sand – used and burnt sand
Core: A separate part of the mould, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create openings
and various shaped cavities in the castings.

Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal is poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mould cavity. In
many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mould.
Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mould cavity.
Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own weight and
overcome the metallostatic force.
Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mould to feed the castings as it shrinks and solidifies. Also
known as “feed head”.
Vent: Small opening in the mould to facilitate escape of air and gases.

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Steps in making sand castings:
The basic steps in making sand castings
are,
(i)Pattern making,
(ii)Core making,
(iii)Moulding,
(iv)Melting and pouring,
(v)Cleaning
 Pattern making –
 Pattern is the replica of the part to be cast, with some modifications and is used to prepare the
mould cavity. It is the physical model of the casting used to make the mould. Made of either
wood or metal.
 Modifications are
1. The addition of pattern allowances
2. The provision of core print
3. Elimination of fine details

Pattern size =casting size + allowances

Figure 2: A typical pattern attached with gating and risering system

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Functions of the Pattern
1. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core and need to
be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity may form a part of the
pattern.
4. Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.
Pattern Materials:-
the pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined
2. Light in weight
3. Strong, hard and durable
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity
7. Available at low cost
 Pattern Materials:-

In genral materials – wood, metals & plastics metals & plastics

Adv
Wood-
• Availability in various thicknesses
Adv:-
• Easy availability, • Higher strength
• Low weight, • No need for seasoning
• Easily shaped, • Used for flat type and no three
• Cheap, Care to be taken dimensional contour shapes
Disadv:- Large scale casting.
 Moisture absorption, • Choice of pattern materials
 Distortion, depends on
 Dimensional change, • Size of casting
 seasoning
• No. of castings to be made from
 Example – Pine, Teak, Deodar
pattern
Disadv:-
 Dimensional accuracy required
 Pattern allowance
A pattern is always made larger than the final part to be made. The excess dimension is known as Pattern allowance.

1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Machining or finish allowance
4. Distortion or camber allowance
5. Rapping allowance
Shrinkage allowance:
It will take care of contractions of a casting which occurs as the metal cools to room temperature.
 Liquid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state to solid state. Riser which feed the
liquid metal to the casting is provided in the mould to compensate for this.
 Solid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume caused when metal looses temperature in solid state. Shrinkage allowance is
provided on the patterns to account for this. Shrink rule is used to compensate solid shrinkage depending on the material
contraction rate. 17
Machining allowance:
It will take care of the extra material that will be removed to obtain a finished
product. In this the rough surface in the cast product will be removed. The
machining allowance depends on the size of the casting, material properties,
material distortion, finishing accuracy and machining method.
Machining allowances of various metals

Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)

Cast iron Up to 12 0.12
12 to 20 0.20
20 to 40 0.25

Cast steel Up to 6 0.12

6 to 20 0.25
20 to 40 0.30
Non ferrous Up to 8 0.09
8 to 12 0.12
12 to 40 0.16 18
Draft allowance–
• Vertical faces of the pattern are to be made tapered to reduce the chances of
damage to the mould cavity. It varies with the complexity of the job.
• Inner details require more allowance than outer. This allowance is more for hand
moulding than machine moulding.
Typical Draft Allowances
Pattern Height of the Draft angle Draft angle
material given surface (External (Internal
(inch) surface) surface)

Wood 1 3.00 3.00

1 to 2 1.50 2.50
2 to 4 1.00 1.50
4 to 8 0.75 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 1.00 Pattern having draft allowance on
Metal and 1 1.50 3.00 vertical surfaces
plastic 1 to 2 1.00 2.00
2 to 4 0.75 1.00
4 to 8 0.50 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 0.75
Shake allowance –
This is a negative allowance. Applied to those dimensions which are parallel to parting
plane.
Distortion allowance –
Metals just solidified are very weak, which may be distorted. This allowance is given to the
weaker sections like long flat portion, U & V sections, complicated casing, thin & long
sections connected to thick sections.
The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are
caused on account of unequal cooling of different sections of the casting and hindered
contraction.

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 Patterns for Sand Casting

Figure 11.6 A typical metal

match-plate pattern used in
sand casting.

Figure 11.7 Taper on patterns for ease

of removal from the sand mold.
 TYPES OF PATTERNS:-
Various types of patterns depends on
- Complexity of the job
-No of castings required

-Moulding procedure adopted

1. Single piece pattern
2. Split pattern
3. Cope and drag pattern
4. Match plate pattern
5. Gated pattern
6. Loose piece pattern
7. Sweep pattern
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8. Follow board pattern

9. Skeleton pattern
1. Single piece pattern:
• Cheapest pattern
• Used in simple processes
• Applied in small scale production
E.g. stuffing box of steam engine, simple rectangular blocks
2. Two-piece or split pattern:
• When solid pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the mold cavity, then solid pattern is splited in two parts.
• Split pattern is made in two pieces which are joined at the parting line by means of dowel pins.
• The splitting at the parting line is done to facilitate the withdrawal of the pattern.
3. Cope and drag pattern
• In this case, cope and drag part of the mould are prepared
separately.
• This is done when the complete mould is too heavy to
be handled by one operator.
• The pattern is made up of two halves, which are mounted on
different plates.

4. Match plate pattern

• This pattern is made in two halves and is on mounted on the
opposite sides of a wooden or metallic plate, known as match
plate.
• The gates and runners are also attached to the plate.
• This pattern is used in machine molding.
5. Gated pattern
• In the mass production of casings, multi cavity moulds are
used.
• Such moulds are formed by joining a number of patterns and
gates and providing a common runner for the molten metal, as
shown in Fig.
• These patterns are made of metals, and metallic pieces to
form gates and runners are attached to the pattern.
6. Loose piece pattern
• It is very difficult to remove one piece of solid pattern which is
above or below the parting plane having projections from the
mold.
• With the help of loose piece types of patterns projections can
be made by loose pieces.
7. Sweep pattern
• Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular
moulds of symmetric kind by revolving a sweep
(wooden board) attached to a spindle as shown in Fig.
8. Follow board pattern
• Follow board pattern consists of a simple wooden
board.
• The wooden board is used as a base in follow board
pattern for molding process.
• This pattern is used in processes where casting
structures are weak, and they may break after the
application of force.
9. Skeleton Pattern
• This is a ribbed construction of wood which forms an
outline of the pattern to be made.
• This framework is filled with loam sand and rammed.
The surplus sand is removed by strickle board.
 Moulding Materials, Composition of Moulding Sand

Casting or moulding processes can be classified into following FOUR categories:

1. Conventional Molding Processes a. Lost Wax

a. Green Sand Molding
b. Ceramics Shell Molding
b. Dry Sand Molding
c. Evaporative Pattern Casting
c. Flask less Molding
d. Vacuum Sealed Molding
2. Chemical Sand Molding Processes
e. Centrifugal Casting
d. Shell Molding
e. Sodium Silicate Molding
f. No-Bake Molding
3. Permanent Mold Processes
g. Gravity Die casting
h. Low and High Pressure Die Casting 27

4. Special Casting Processes

 Green Sand Molding
Green sand is the most diversified molding method used in metal casting operations. The process
utilizes a mold made of compressed or compacted moist sand. The term "green" denotes the presence
of moisture in the molding sand. The mold material consists of silica sand mixed with a suitable
bonding agent (usually clay) and moisture.
Advantages
1. Most metals can be cast by this method.
2. Pattern costs and material costs are relatively low.
3. No Limitation with respect to size of casting and type of metal or alloy used
Disadvantages

Surface Finish of the castings obtained by this process is not good and machining is often required to
achieve the finished product.
 Sand Mold Making Procedure
The first step in making mold is to place the pattern on the molding board and the drag is placed on the board
Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non sticky layer.
Molding sand is then riddled in to cover the pattern with the fingers; then the drag is completely filled.
The sand is then firmly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers. The ramming must be proper i.e. it must
neither be too hard or soft. After the ramming is over, the excess sand is leveled off with a straight bar known as a
strike rod.
With the help of vent rod, vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern
to facilitate the removal of gases during pouring and solidification. The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the
bottom board exposing the pattern.
Cope half of the pattern is then placed over the drag pattern with the help of locating pins. The cope flask on the drag
is located aligning again with the help of pins The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the pattern.
A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance from the pattern. Also, riser pin, if required,
is placed at an appropriate place.
The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in the same manner as performed in the drag.
The sprue and riser pins are removed first and a pouring basin is scooped out at the top to pour the liquid metal.
Then pattern from the cope and drag is removed and facing sand in the form of paste is applied all over the mold
cavity and runners which would give the finished casting a good surface finish.
The mold is now assembled. The mold now is ready for pouring
 Molding Material and Properties
A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and cores. They include molding sand, system sand or
backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core sand. The choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties. The
properties that are generally required in molding materials are:

Refractoriness

It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that it does not get fused with the metal.
The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.

Permeability

During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and steam is generated. These gases are those that have
been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these
gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome this
problem the molding material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases that are generated inside the mold
cavity.

Green Strength

The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other to
impart sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.
Dry Strength
When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly converted into dry sand
as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten metal. At this stage the molding sand must
posses the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to
withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.
Hot Strength
As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature when the metal in the mold is
still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot strength.
Collapsibility
The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of the solidified casting it does not
provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the castings.Besides these specific properties the molding
material should be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.
 Molding Sand Composition
The main ingredients of any molding sand are:
Base sand, Binder, and Moisture
1. Base Sand
(a) Silica sand- this is the major portion of the moulding sand. About 96% of this sand is silica grain. Rests are oxides
(Al2O3), sodium (Na2O +K2O) and magnesium oxide (MgO +CaO). Main source of silica sand is river sand (with /without
washing). Fusion point of sand is 14500C for cast iron and 15500C for steels. Grain size varies from micrometer to
millimetre. The shape of the grains may be round, angular, sub angular or very angular.
(b) Zircon sand- The main composition is zirconium silicate (ZrSiO2).
Composition- ZrO2- 66.25% + SiO2-30.96% + Al2O3-1.92% + Fe2O3-0.74% + Other - oxides
• It is very expensive. In India, it is available at quilon beach, kerela. The fusion point of the sand is 2400oC.
Advantage - High thermal conductivity
• High chilling power
• High density
• Requires very small amount of binder (3%)
• Use - Precision steel casting & Precision investment casting
(c) Chromite sand – The sand is crushed from the chrome ore. The fusion point of the sand is 18000C. It requires very
small amount of binder (3%).
Composition- Cr2O3- 44% + Fe2O3 -28% + SiO2 -2.5% + CaO -0.5% + Al2O3 +MgO -25%
Use – heavy steel castings
Austenitic manganese steel castings
(d) Olivine sand- This sand composed of the minerals of fosterite (Mg2SiO4) and fayalite (Fe2SiO4). It is versatile in nature.
2. Binder
Binders are of many types such as:
1. Clay binders,
2. Organic binders and
3. Inorganic binders
Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to provide the strength. The most popular clay
types are:
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4SiO2 nH2O) Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which
increases its bonding power.
Bentonite is further of two types. (a) Western bentonite and (b) southern bentonite

Western bentonite – Southern Bentonite –

• It is rich with sodium ion It has better swelling properties • It is rich with calcium ion
• When it mixes with sand, the volume increases 10 to 20 times. • It has low dry strength and high green strength
• High dry strength, so lower risk of erosion • Its properties can be improved by treating it with soda ash
• Better tolerance of variation in water content (sodium carbonate)
• Low green strength
• High resistance to burn out
Moisture
Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of moisture. When water is added to
clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the clay. The amount
of water used should be properly controlled. This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the
clay flakes, helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity

Table : A Typical Composition of Molding Sand.

Molding Sand Constituent Weight Percent

Silica sand 92
Clay (Sodium Bentonite) 8
Water
 Sand Testing
Sample preparation: can be done by mixing various ingredients like sand, clay and moisture. During mixing,
the lump present in sand should be broken up properly. The clay should be uniformly enveloped and the
moisture should be uniformly distributed.
The equipment used for preparation of moulding sand is known as Mueller. This is of two types.
(i) Batch Mueller- Consists of one/two wheels and equal no. of blades connected to a single driving source.
The wheels are large and heavy.
(ii) Continuous Mueller- In this type, there are two bowls with wheel and ploughs. The mixture is fed through
hopper in one bowl. After muelled, it is moved to another bowl. This type of Mueller is suitable for large
scale production.
 Types of Sand Testing
1. Moisture content
2. Clay content
3. Sand grain size
4. Permeability
5. Strength
1. Moisture content:-
1st method - 50g of moulding sand sample is dried at 105ºC to 110ºC for 2hrs. The sample is then weighed.
Wt. diff * 2= % of moisture content

2nd method - Moisture teller can be used for measuring moisture content. The Sand is dried suspending sample
on fine metallic screen allowing hot air to flow through sample. This method takes less time in comparison to the
previous one.
3rd method - A measured amount of calcium carbide along with moulding sand in a separate cap is kept in the
moisture teller. Both should not come in contact with each other. Apparatus should be shaken vigorously such that
the following reaction takes place.
CaC2 + 2H2O – C2H2 + Ca(OH)2

The acetylene coming out will be collected in space above the sand raising the pressure. A pressure gauge
connected to the apparatus would give directly the amount of acetylene generated, which is proportional to the
moisture present.
Clay content:-
• A 50g of sand sample is dried at 105ºC to
110ºC and is taken in a 1lt. glass flask.
• 475ml distilled water and 25ml of a 1%
solution of caustic soda (NaOH 25g/l) is
added to it.
• The sample is thoroughly stirred (5 mins).
• The sample is then diluted with fresh water
upto 150 mm mark and then left
undisturbed for 10mins to settle.
• The sand settles at bottom and the clay
floats.
• 125mm of this water is siphoned off and
again topped to the same level.
• The process is repeated till water above the
sand becomes clear.
• Then the sand is removed and dried by
heating.
• The difference in weight multiplied by 2 will
give the clay % of sand.
Sand grain size:-

For sand grain size measurement, the moulding sand sample should be free from moisture and clay. The dried
clay free sand grains are place on the top sieve of sieve shaker (gradually decreasing mesh size). The sieves are
shaken continuously for 15 mins. After this the sieves are taken apart and the sand over each sieve is weighed.
The amount retained on each sieve is multiplied by the respective weightage factor, summed up and then divided
by the total mass f the sample which gives the grain fineness number.
GFN= ƩMi fi/ Ʃfi
Mi= multiplying factor for the ith sieve
Fi= amount of sand retained on the ith sieve
Permeability:-
 Rate of flow of air passing through a
standard specimen under a standard
pressure is known as permeability number.
 P= V H / pAT
where, V= volume of air= 2000cm3
H= height of sand specimen= 5.08cm
P= air pressure, 980Pa (10g/cm2)
A= cross sectional area of sand
specimen= 20.268 cm2
T= time in min. for the complete air to pass
through
 Inserting the above standard values in the
expression we get, P= 501.28/ P.T
 Permeability test is conducted for two types
of sands
• Green permeability – permeability of green
sand
• Dry permeability – permeability of the
moulding sand dried at 105ºC to 110ºC to
remove the moisture completely
Strength:-

Measurement of strength of moulding sand is carried out on the universal sand- strength testing M/C. The strength
can be measured in compression, shear & tension. The types of sand that can be tested are green, dry, core sands.
Green compressive strength:-

Stress required to rupture the sand specimen under compressive loading refers to the green compressive strength.
It is generally in the range of 30 to 160KPa.
Green shear strength:-

The stress required to shear the specimen along the axis is represented as green shear strength. The range is 10 to
50 KPa.
Dry strength:-

The test is carried out with a standard specimen dried between 105 to 110°C for 2 hours. The range found is from
140 to 1800KPa.
Mould hardness:-

A spring loaded steel ball (0.9kg) is indented into standard sand specimen prepared. If no penetration occurs, then
the hardness will be 100. And when it sinks completely, the hardness will be 0 indicating a very soft mould.