INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

How did ancient India's knowledge

survive destruction?
 Oral tradition and guru-shishya parampara – Knowledge was
transmitted orally from teachers to students to ensure its continuity
even without or destruction of formal institutions.
 Migration of scholars – When institutions like Nalanda and
Vikramashila were attacked, scholars fled to different regions, taking
their knowledge with them. Many migrated to South India, Tibet, China,
and Southeast Asia, ensuring that their teachings were preserved and
spread.
 Religious institutions and monasteries – Buddhist and Hindu
monasteries, along with temples, functioned as secondary knowledge
centers of learning, which preserved ancient texts. Monks and scholars
continued their work in secret or in other safe locations. For instance,
Tibetan Buddhist monasteries preserved Indian texts and traditions
when Buddhism declined in India.
 Foreign translations and records – While invaders destroyed
libraries, travellers like Xuanzang and Al-Biruni documented and
translated Indian knowledge into Chinese and Arabic languages.
 Underground libraries – Some scholars hid manuscripts in remote
locations or underground repositories.( Palm-leaf of ayurveda were
found in kerala temples)
 Resurgence of learning – New centers of knowledge like Varanasi
and Kanchipuram emerged, and continued intellectual traditions.
 Integration into other cultures – Indian mathematical, scientific, and
philosophical knowledge was absorbed by Islamic and European
scholars. Concepts like the decimal system and Ayurveda found their
way into global civilizations, ensuring their survival despite institutional
destruction.
 Thus, while ancient knowledge centers were physically attacked, their
intellectual and cultural legacy endured through resilience, adaptation,
and the widespread dissemination of knowledge.
Importance of Ancient
Knowledge
Culture

Economic Ancient
Identity
Value Knowledge

Received
wisdom
 The IKS Corpus-The classical
framework:-

IKS

Literary Non-Literary

Other
Sanatana Oral
Dharmic Regional
Dharma Traditions
Tradition

Songs and
Core Other Boddhist Jain Art Forms Folk tales Genealogies
Chants
Unique aspects of IKS
 "Unique aspects" refers to the special, distinct, or uncommon features or
characteristics of something — in this case, Indigenous Knowledge Systems
(IKS) — that make it different from other systems or approaches.
 Western science often separates facts from beliefs, and focuses on written,
measurable data.
 IKS, in contrast, may combine spiritual beliefs, oral traditions, and practical
survival skills, making these features unique aspects of IKS.
1. Holistic and Interconnected worldview (Nature, humans, and
spirituality are one system.)
2. Sustainability and Environmental Stewardship (Environmental care is
a moral and communal obligation)
3. Non linear Concept of Time (Time is cyclical )
4. Emphasis on community and collective ownership ("Vasudhaiva
Kutumbakam" — “the world is one family”)
5. Resilience and Adaptability ("Sanatana Dharma" eternal, ever-
renewing path)
Objectives of Ancient Knowledge
System
 The objectives of Ancient Indian Knowledge Systems were deeply
rooted in spiritual, philosophical, scientific, and practical wisdom. These
systems evolved over thousands of years and were aimed at the holistic
development of individuals and society. The core objectives can be
summarized as follows:
1. Preservation of Knowledge (Shruti & Smriti)
2. Promotion and awareness
3. Global Integration
4. Holistic Development of the Individual
5. Development of Rational and Scientific Thought
6. Promotion of Dharma (Ethical Living)
7. Harmony with Nature
Challenges Encountered in Incorporating
Traditional Indian Knowledge into
Educational Programs: -
1. Language Barriers :- Much of traditional knowledge is written in ancient languages
like Sanskrit, Pali, Tamil, and Prakrit, making it difficult for modern learners to
access without translations or training.
2. Modern Curriculum Overload:- The existing education system is already
overloaded with subjects and syllabus demands. Integrating IKS without
overburdening students and teachers is a practical challenge.
3. Student Interest and Relevance:- Students often view traditional knowledge as
irrelevant to modern careers or technology-driven futures. Creating practical, real-
world connections is essential to make IKS appealing.
4. Standardization Issues:- Standardization refers to having a uniform structure,
format, and criteria for teaching, learning, and evaluating knowledge. In the context of
IKS, lack of standardization means. Many ancient texts are open to interpretation
and have multiple commentaries. Without standard references, teachers and students
might follow vastly different understandings of the same concept.
5. Resistance to change:- Resistance to change refers to the
reluctance or refusal of people or systems to accept new ideas,
practices, or reforms. When applied to education, it means stakeholders
(like educators, policymakers, parents, or students) are hesitant to
adopt traditional Indian knowledge in the curriculum.
6. Interdisciplinary Challenges:- While IKS is inherently holistic and
interconnected, modern academic structures are fragmented into
rigid disciplines, creating multiple challenges.
 Modern universities and schools divide subjects into strict departments (e.g.,
science, humanities, commerce).IKS topics like Ayurveda, Vastu, Rasa Shastra,
or Yoga combine physical, psychological, and spiritual elements—so they don’t
fit neatly into one subject. Result: No single department takes ownership.
 Most educators are trained in one specific discipline and may not be equipped
to teach interdisciplinary content. For example, a science teacher may not feel
confident teaching ancient Indian cosmology that includes spiritual elements.
7. Cultural and Political Sensitivities:- IKS is deeply rooted in India’s
religious, spiritual, regional, and historical traditions, its inclusion
in education can raise debates and controversies.
 Subjects like Vedic literature, Sanskrit texts, or Yoga are sometimes
viewed as Hindu-centric.In a secular educational system, promoting
one religious tradition can lead to objections from other religious or
minority communities.
 Focusing only on Sanskritic or Brahmanical knowledge may neglect
other Indian traditions, such as: Buddhist, Jain, or Islamic
contributions to Indian science, medicine, and philosophy. This can lead
to accusations of cultural exclusion or bias.
8. Preservation of Authenticity:- Authenticity here refers to maintaining
the original essence, meaning, and context of ancient knowledge—
without distorting, diluting, or misrepresenting it.
Chaturdasha Vidyasthana
 Chaturdasha Vidyasthana (Sanskrit: चतुर्दश विद्यास्थान) literally
means the "fourteen seats (sources) of knowledge" in ancient
Indian tradition. These form the core framework of classical Indian
education, encompassing both sacred and secular disciplines. They
were considered essential for holistic knowledge and intellectual
development in the traditional Indian Gurukula system and were the
foundation for scholarly and spiritual pursuits.
 List of the 14 Vidyasthanas :-
A. Four Vedas (श्रुति) – Sacred Knowledge
1. Rigveda – Hymns and praises to nature and deities
2. Yajurveda – Rituals and sacrificial formulas
3. Samaveda – Musical chants and melodies for rituals
4. Atharvaveda – Spells, healing, and everyday life knowledge
B. Six Vedangas ( limbs of the Vedas ) – Tools to Understand the
Vedas
5. Shiksha – Phonetics and pronunciation
6. Vyakarana – Grammar (e.g., Panini’s Ashtadhyayi)
7. Chandas – Metrics and prosody (rules of poetic meter)
8. Nirukta – Etymology and interpretation of difficult words
9. Kalpa – Ritual instructions and procedures
10.Jyotisha – Astronomy and astrology (calendrical science)

C. Four Upangas (subsidiary disciplines)

11.Purana – Mythological and historical stories (e.g., Bhagavata, Vishnu
Purana)
12.Nyaya – Logic and reasoning (epistemology and debate)
13.Mimamsa – Philosophical inquiry and interpretation of rituals
14.Dharma Shastra – Codes of law, ethics, and social conduct (e.g.,
Manusmriti)
Vedic Literature
 Vedic literature refers to the ancient sacred texts of India, composed
in Sanskrit over 3,000 years ago. These texts are the foundation of
Hindu philosophy, rituals, and spirituality. They are called "Vedic"
because they originate from the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of
Hinduism.
Major Text of Shruti Literature
 The Four Vedas :-
• Rigveda
• Yajurveda
• Samaveda
• Atharvaveda

 The Four Parts of Each Veda:

• Saṃhitā – hymns and mantras
• Brāhmaṇa – ritualistic instructions
• Āraṇyaka – forest treatises, symbolic rituals
• Upaniṣad – philosophical teachings
1.Rigveda :-
 Veda literally means “knowledge” or “wisdom.
 It refers specifically to the spiritual knowledge revealed to sages in deep
meditative states, not just intellectual understanding.
1. Rigveda:-
• The Rigveda is the oldest and most important of the four Vedas. It is a large
collection of hymns (poems or songs) that were composed thousands of
years ago to praise natural forces and gods. These hymns were passed
down orally for generations before being written down in Sanskrit.
• These hymns were composed by sages (rishis) and are mostly in praise of
nature and gods. People sang them during rituals, prayers, and sacrifices
(yajnas).
 When Was It Composed?
• Estimated time: Around 1500 BCE – 1200 BCE (maybe even older).
• This period is called the early Vedic period.
• It was not written at first—it was memorized and recited by trained priests.
• Writing likely came much later, around 1000 BCE or later.
 What's Inside the Rigveda?
• It has 1,028 hymns (called sūktas).
• These are divided into 10 books, called maṇḍalas
• Total number of verses: about 10,600.
2. Samaveda :-
 The Sāmaveda is one of the four Vedas of Hinduism. It is often
called the "Veda of melodies" or "Veda of chants" because it
mainly contains musical hymns that were sung during rituals
and yajnas (sacrifices).
• While the Rigveda has the hymns in poetic form,
• The Sāmaveda sets those hymns to music so they can be sung
by priests.
 So, it’s like the musical version of the Rigveda.
 It has 1,875 verses, but here’s the interesting part:
• Most of the verses (about 1,600) are taken from the Rigveda,
especially from its 8th and 9th mandalas.
• Only about 75 verses are unique to the Sāmaveda.
 The Sāmaveda is mainly divided into two parts:
1. Ārchika (Collection of verses/hymns)
2. Gāna (Instructions on how to sing the hymns (musical notes & melodies)

 When Was It Composed?

• Composed around the same time as the Rigveda, roughly between
1500 BCE and 1200 BCE.
• It developed over time, especially as rituals became more complex
and music was added to enhance their spiritual power.
3. Yajurveda:-
 Composed around 1200–800 BCE (more than 3000 years ago)
 Believed to be revealed to rishis (sages) during meditation
 Passed down orally from teacher to student for centuries
 Later written down in Sanskrit
 Yajurveda is like a ritual guidebook or instruction manual for
performing Hindu ceremonies properly. While the Rigveda is like a
songbook and the Samaveda like a musical playlist, the Yajurveda
is the step-by-step handbook for doing the rituals.
 The Yajurveda has two main parts:
1. Samhita – a collection of mantras and chants
2. Brahmana – explanations of the rituals, their meaning, and how to perform
them
 Two Main Versions of Yajurveda :-
1. Shukla Yajurveda (White Yajurveda)
• Also called Vajasaneyi Samhita
• The mantras are separate from the explanations
• Clear and organized
• Mostly followed in North India
2. Krishna Yajurveda (Black Yajurveda)
• Krishna” means “dark” – here, mantras and explanations are mixed
• More complex and less organized
• Has several sub-branches like Taittiriya, Maitrayani, Kathaka, and
Kapishthala
4. Atharvaveda
 It deals with everyday life – like health, relationships, protection from
danger, and success.
 It includes spells, prayers, healing formulas, and philosophical
ideas.
 You can think of it as the Veda of daily life, while the others focus
more on rituals and gods.
 Composed around 1200–1000 BCE, maybe even earlier
 Considered the youngest of the four Vedas in its final form
Subdivisions of Vedas
 The Vedas are divided into subgroups to organize knowledge,
guide different stages of spiritual life, and serve different
types of learners and practitioners.
 The Vedas were not written all at once—they were
developed over centuries, and they cover many areas
 Samhita :- Hymns and mantras - Pray to the gods
 Brahmana :- Ritual instructions - How to do rituals correctly
 Aranyaka :- Symbolic and meditative ideas - Think deeply about
rituals
 Upanishad :- Spiritual philosophy - Understand yourself and the
universe
Practical Reasons for Division:-
 Easy to learn and memorize
 Different people had different roles
• Priests: Used Samhitas & Brahmanas
• Forest hermits: Studied Aranyakas
• Seekers of truth: Meditated on Upanishads
 Better preservation of knowledge across generations
Vedangas
 The word Vedangas (Sanskrit: वेदाङ्ग) means “limbs of the Veda.”
 So, the Vedangas are six auxiliary disciplines developed to support
the correct understanding, recitation, interpretation, and
application of the Vedas.
 The Vedāṅgas evolved during the later Vedic period (approximately
1000–500 BCE).
 As the Vedic hymns became more complex and difficult to
understand, specialized fields of knowledge were developed to
preserve and interpret them correctly.
 Name Sanskrit Name Focus Area Purpose

Shiksha (शिक्षा) Pronunciation, To preserve

accents, sounds correct
Phonetics
recitation of
Vedas
Metre Chandas (छन्दः) Poetic meters and To understand
rhythm and maintain
metrical
structure
Grammar Vyakarana Grammar and To analyze and
(व्याकरण) linguistic analysis interpret Vedic
texts correctly
Etymology Nirukta (निरुक्त) Explanation of rare To explain
or archaic Vedic meanings of
words difficult words
Ritual Kalpa (कल्प) Rules for rituals, To guide ritual
ceremonies, performance
sacrifices and duties
Jyotiṣa (ज्योतिष) Timekeeping, To fix dates for
Astronomy astrology, celestial rituals and
Indian Philosophical
Systems(Darsana's)
Indian Philosophical
systems
Vedic Non-vedic

Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaisesika Mimamsa vedanta Carvaka Jaina Bauddha

Introduction to Indian Philosophy
 Indian philosophy is one of the world’s oldest and most profound
systems of thought.
 It developed thousands of years ago and seeks to answer some of the
deepest questions of human life, such as:
• What is the nature of reality?
• Who am I?
• What is the purpose of life?
• How can one attain peace and liberation (moksha)?
 The word “Darsana” means “viewpoint” or “way of seeing”.
 Thus, Indian philosophical systems (Darśanas) are different ways of
understanding truth and reality.
Astika (Orthodox) Systems
 Accept the authority of the Vedas (the sacred scriptures of Hinduism).
 Believe in the existence of Atman (Soul), Ishvara (God), and Moksha
(Liberation).
 There are six major Astika or Orthodox schools:
1. Samkhya
2. Yoga
3. Nyaya
4. Vaisesika
5. Mimamsa
6. Vedanta
1. Samkhya Philosophy
 Founder: Sage Kapila
 The word “Samkhya” means “number” or “count”, because it counts
or lists the main parts (principles) that make up the world.
 Main Idea: Explains creation through two eternal realities —
Purusha (soul or consciousness) and Prakriti (matter or nature).
 The world is formed by the interaction of these two.
• Purusha (Soul or Self): -
• The spirit inside us — the real “I”.
• It does not act; it only watches or experiences.
• It never changes, never dies, and is peaceful.
• Prakriti (Nature) : -
• Everything that we see — body, mind, earth, sky, and all of nature.
• It is always changing and active.
2. Yoga : -
 The Yoga Philosophy was founded by Sage Patanjali, who wrote the
famous book called the Yoga Sutras
 The word “Yoga” means “union” or “joining” — it means joining our
individual soul with the Supreme (God or higher self).
 This philosophy teaches how to control the mind and body to live
peacefully and reach spiritual freedom (moksha).
 Samkhya explains the theory of life (how the world is made).
 Yoga teaches the practice — how to apply that knowledge in real life
through discipline, meditation, and self-control.
 The main difference:
• Samkhya does not believe in God.
• Yoga does believe in God (called Ishvara).
 According to Yoga, our mind is always full of thoughts, worries, and desires.
 These thoughts stop us from seeing our true self (the soul).
 When the mind becomes calm and quiet, the soul shines clearly — like the
moon reflected in still water.
 So, the aim of Yoga is to control the mind and realize the true self.
 The Eight Steps of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga) : -
• Yama – Good behavior or moral rules
• Niyama – Personal discipline
• Asana – Physical postures (body exercises)
• Pranayama – Control of breath
• Pratyahara – Withdrawing the senses
• Dharana – Concentration
• Dhyana – Meditation
• Samādhi – Deep peace or union with the Divine
3. Nyaya : -
 It was founded by Sage Gautama, also known as Aksapaad.
 The word “Nyaya” means logic, reasoning, or rules of thinking.
 We all suffer because of ignorance (not knowing the truth).
 If we remove ignorance and get right knowledge, we can be free from
suffering.
 So, Nyaya says that correct knowledge (true understanding) is the key
to liberation (moksha).
 The goal of Nyaya philosophy is Moksha (liberation).
 Liberation means freedom from pain, confusion, and rebirth.
 This can be achieved by removing false beliefs and gaining true knowledge
through correct reasoning.
 Imagine you’re in a dark room and see a rope — but you think it’s a snake!
You feel scared until the light is turned on and you realize it’s just a rope.
Nyaya says: Ignorance causes fear and suffering, but true knowledge
brings peace and freedom.
4. Vaishesika : -
 It was started by Sage Kanada, also known as Kasyapa.
 The word “Vaishesika” comes from the Sanskrit word “Viśeṣa”, which
means “special” or “distinct”.
 So, Vaisheshika is the philosophy that explains the special nature of
things — what makes one thing different from another.
 `It teaches that everything in the universe is made of tiny, invisible
particles called “atoms” (anu).
 These atoms combine in different ways to form all objects — just like
how different arrangements of bricks make different buildings.
 Sage Kanada was one of the first people in history to talk about
atoms, long before modern science!
 He said:
• The world is made of eternal atoms. Atoms are too small to be seen. When
atoms combine, they form bigger things — like water, fire, air, and earth.
When these combinations break, things get destroyed.
• So, everything in nature — living or non-living — is a combination of atoms
and qualities.
5. Mimamsa : -
 It was founded by Sage Jaimini.
 The word “Mimamsa” means “to think deeply” or “to
investigate.”
 This philosophy teaches us how to live a good and righteous life by
following duties, moral values, and Vedic rituals.
 There are two parts of Mimamsa in Indian philosophy:
1. Purva Mimamsa (Earlier Mimamsa) – by Jaimini
2. Uttara Mimamsa (Later Mimamsa) – by Badarayana (also called
Vedanta)
 Mimamsa teaches that the Vedas are eternal and divine, and by
following the rules and duties mentioned in them, we can live
happily and go towards liberation.
 It emphasizes karma (action) — doing your duty sincerely without
expecting rewards.
 Good actions bring good results, bad actions bring suffering — this is the
law of karma.
6. Vedanta : -
 It was founded by Sage Bādarāyaṇa, who wrote the Brahma Sutras
(also called Vedanta Sutras).
 The word “Vedanta” is made of two parts:
• Veda = knowledge
• Anta = end or conclusion
 So, Vedanta means “the end or essence of the Vedas.”
 Types (Branches) of Vedanta Philosophy : -
1. Advaita Vedanta :- Adi Shankaracharya (God and soul are one (non-
dualism)
2. Vishishtadvaita Vedanta:- Ramanujacharya (God and soul are different
but connected)
3. Dvaita Vedanta : - Madhvacharya (God and soul are completely
separate)
Nastika (Heterodox) Systems
 Nastika systems are philosophical traditions that reject the
authority of the Vedas and often challenge other core tenets of Vedic
or Brahmanical traditions such as:
• The caste system
• Ritualism
• The concept of a creator god (Ishvara)
• The idea of a permanent soul (Atman)
 These schools are still deeply philosophical and spiritual but differ
significantly from the orthodox Vedanta traditions.
1. Buddhism : -
 Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (The Buddha)
 Core Ideas:
• Four Noble Truths
• Eightfold Path
• Rejection of the Atman (soul)
• Concept of Anatta (non-self) and Nirvana
 Scriptures: Tripitaka (Pali Canon)
 Example: Buddhist monks practice Vipassana meditation to gain insight
into the impermanence of reality.
2. Jainism : -
 Founder: Mahavira (24th Tirthankara)
 Core Ideas:
• Non-violence (Ahimsa)
• Truth (Satya)
• Non-possession (Aparigraha)
• Belief in an eternal, individual soul (Jiva)
 Scriptures: Agamas
 Example: Jain monks cover their mouths with cloth to avoid harming
even tiny airborne life forms.
3. Charvaka (Lokayata) : -
 Founder: Brhaspati
 Core Ideas:
• Materialism
• Direct perception (Pratyaksha) as the only valid means of knowledge
• Rejection of afterlife, karma, and rebirth
• Focus on enjoying life (hedonism)
 Unfortunately, original Charvaka texts are lost, but we know about
them through:
• Critiques in rival philosophical texts (especially by Vedanta, Nyaya, and
Buddhist scholars)
• Some references in works like:
• Sarva-darsana-samgraha by Madhavacharya
• Mahabharata (some verses reflect materialist ideas)
• Tattvopaplavasimha by Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa (possibly aligned with Charvaka)
Non-Vedic
 Non-Vedic literature includes religious, philosophical, historical, and
cultural texts from ancient India that were not written by or related
to the Vedic traditions.
 Examples include:
1. Buddhist texts like the Tripitaka
2. Jain texts like the Agamas
3. Epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata
4. Puranas and Sutras
 Non-Vedic literature comes from other schools of thought and
includes a wider variety of ideas, including those outside the
Brahmanical (priestly) tradition.
 “Other schools of thought” means: Different ways of thinking or
believing, especially about life, religion, or philosophy.
• In ancient India, not everyone believed in or followed the Vedas. So,
other schools of thought were groups or traditions that had different
ideas about things like:
• What is the purpose of life?
• How should we live?
• What is the truth?
• Who or what is God (or is there no God)?
• Examples of other schools of thought:
1. Buddhism – Taught by Gautama Buddha. It rejected the Vedas, focused
on ending suffering through the Eightfold Path.
2. Jainism – Taught by Mahavira. It also rejected the Vedas, and focused
on non-violence and self-control.
3. Charvaka (Lokayata) – A materialist school that believed only in what
we can see or touch. No soul, no afterlife.
4. Ajivika – Believed everything is determined by fate (destiny), and we
have no control.
Puranas
 Puranas are a large collection of ancient Hindu texts that tell stories
about the creation of the world, gods and goddesses, great
kings, sages, and moral teachings.
 The word Purāṇa (पुराण) literally means "ancient" or "old
narrative" in Sanskrit.
 "Pura" = before/ancient
 "Na" = new or knowledge
 They are not just mythological tales but are encyclopedic works that
deal with topics ranging from cosmogony (creation of the universe)
to rituals, genealogies of gods and kings, and moral and
philosophical teachings.
 PURANAS

Maha
Up puranas
puranas
(18)
(18)
 Maha Puranas :-
• The word Maha means "great," and Puranas means "ancient lore" or "old
story," so Mah purana translates to “great ancient narrative.”
• They are encyclopedic in nature, covering a wide range of topics such
as:
1. Cosmology and cosmogony (creation of the universe)
2. Genealogies of gods, sages, and kings
3. Time cycles and eras (Yugas and Manvantaras)
4. Moral and ethical teachings
5. Devotional paths (especially Bhakti Yoga)
6. Rituals and festivals
7. Philosophical and theological teachings
 The Mah puranas are traditionally grouped based on the dominant guna
(quality) and the primary deity they glorify:

Category Dominant Gun Associated Examples

Deity
Purity Vishnu Vishnu,
Sattvika Bhagavata,
Narada
Rajasa Passion Brahma Brahma,
Brahmavaivart
a
Tamasika Darkness Shiva Shiva, Linga,
Skanda
 Up puranas:-
• The word "Upa" means "subsidiary" or "minor", but that doesn’t mean
they are less important spiritually or culturally.

 Why Are Up puranas Important?

• Preserve regional and local traditions not found in Mah puranas
• Rich in ritualistic and sectarian detail
• Serve as sources for temple rituals, festivals, and local legends
• Provide theological depth for sects like Shakta, Ganapatya, and Saura,
which are less dominant in the Mah puranas
• Contribute to Hindu diversity and pluralism
What is Pancha Lakshana?
 Pancha = five
 Lakshana = characteristics or features
 The 5 Features (Pancha Lakshana)
1. Sarga (Creation)
→ How the universe was created for the first time
2. Pratisarga (Re-creation)
→ How the universe is destroyed and created again in cycles
3. Vamsha (Genealogy)
→ Stories and family trees of gods, sages, and kings
4. Manvantara (Ages of Manus)
→ The rule of 14 Manus — each one rules for a long period of time
(called a Manvantara)
5. Vamshanucharita (Royal histories)
→ Detailed stories of famous kings and dynasties
Influences of Puranas
1. Religious Influence:-
 The Puranas made religion accessible to common people by focusing on
bhakti (devotion) rather than complex rituals.
 They promoted devotion to gods like Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi (the
Goddess).

2. Cultural Influence:-
 Many Indian festivals are based on Purana stories:
• Diwali (return of Rama – from Ramayana, also found in Padma Purana)
• Navratri (worship of Goddess Durga – from Devi Purana).
• Holi (story of Prahlada and Hiranyakashipu – from Vishnu Purana).
3. Philosophical Influence:-
 Unlike the Vedas and Upanishads, which were complex and restricted to
certain castes, the Puranas used stories to teach deep ideas like:
• Karma (action and its consequences)
• Dharma (duty)
• Rebirth and Moksha (liberation)

4. Social Influence:-
 They show how society worked in ancient times—gender roles,
education, ethics, etc.
 Though they sometimes reflected caste-based divisions, they also had
stories of social reform and inclusiveness.
5. Geographical and Scientific Influence :-
 The Puranas described rivers, mountains, oceans, and ancient cities (like
Varanasi, Dwarka, Hastinapura).
 They mentioned different parts of the world as known at that time.
 They included ideas of cosmology (how the universe began),
astronomy, medicine, and time cycles (yugas).
 Though mixed with myth, they reflected early scientific thinking.
Itihasas (Epics)
• Itihasa refers to the historical epics of ancient India — not just stories, but
spiritual history with deep moral, cultural, and philosophical lessons.
• There are two main Itihasas in Hinduism:
1. Ramayana :-
 Author: Sage Valmiki
 Verses: ~24,000
 Language: Sanskrit
 Divided into 7 books (kandas)
2. Mahabharata :-
 Author: Sage Vyasa
 Verses: ~100,000 (world's longest epic!)
 Divided into 18 books (parvas)
Key Themes:
 Dharma vs. Adharma (right vs. wrong)
 The complexity of life
 How to act righteously in difficult situations
 Power of faith, devotion, and self-knowledge
 Difference between Itihasas and
Puranas
Features Itihasas Puranas
Meaning “Thus it happened” – “Ancient stories” –
partly historical mostly mythological &
symbolic
Main Texts Ramayana and 18 major and many
Mahabharata minor Puranas
Style Long narrative epics Mixed format – stories,
hymns, lists, dialogues
Religious Role Promotes dharma Spreads religious
through heroic devotion and
examples mythology
Purpose Teach moral values, Explain creation, gods,
duty (dharma), rituals, festivals
righteousness
Niti Shastras
 Niti Sastras are texts on ethics, good conduct, statecraft
(politics), and practical wisdom.
 “Niti” means moral behavior, worldly wisdom, or policy.
 These are guidebooks for rulers, ministers, and citizens on how to
live wisely and manage society.

Text Author Focus

Politics, economics,
Arthaśāstra Kauṭilya (Chanakya)
law, diplomacy
Nārāyaṇa Paṇḍita Moral stories with
Hitopadeśa
animal characters
Fables teaching
Pañcatantra Vishnu Sharma
worldly wisdom
Bhartṛhari 100 verses on ethics
Nīti Śataka
and wise living
Subhasitas

 Subhasita = A good or wise saying that gives moral advice or truth,

usually in Sanskrit poetry.
 They are typically short, poetic expressions that deliver a profound
message in a memorable way.
 Panchatantra :-
• Panchatantra = “Five Treatises” or “Five Books”
• Attributed to Vishnu Sharma, a wise scholar and teacher from ancient
India.
• It was written to teach life lessons, political wisdom, and moral
values to young princes using animal fables and Subhāṣitas.
 The Panchatantra has five sections, each focusing on a theme:
1. Mitra-bheda – The Loss of Friends
2. Mitra-labha – The Gaining of Friends
3. Kakolukiyam – War and Peace
4. Labdhapranssam – Loss of Gains
5. Apariksitakaritvam – Rash Actions
 Hitopadesha (हितोपदेश)
• Hitopadesha = “Helpful Advice”
• Attributed to Narayana Pandita, a scholar from Bengal.
• Like the Panchatantra, it was created to teach morals, politics, and
practical life skills to children and young rulers.
 The Hitopadesha has four sections:
1. Mitralabha – Gaining Friends
2. Suhridbheda – Separation from Friends
3. Vigraha – Conflict or War
4. Sandhi – Peace or Alliance
Theme and Philosophical insights
 Virtuous Living: Subhashitas cover a broad range of life lessons,
including friendship, truthfulness, patience, compassion, and the
importance of learning.
 Practical Wisdom: They offer practical insights into human behavior
and societal relationships, making them a guide to virtuous living.
 Educational Tools: In traditional Indian education, subhashitas are
taught to children to instill moral values and righteous behavior from a
young age.