OMR353 SENSORS

OPTICAL, PRESSURE,
TEMPERATURE AND OTHER
SENSORS
Presented by
Thilagavathi Ganapathy
Assistant Professor/EEE
 UNIT IV - OPTICAL, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE
AND OTHER SENSORS
Photo Conductive Cell, Photo Voltaic, Photo Resistive, LDR – Fiber
Optic Sensors – Pressure – Diaphragm – Bellows - Piezoelectric -
Piezo-resistive - Acoustic, Temperature – IC, Thermistor, RTD,
Thermocouple – Non Contact Sensor - Chemical Sensors - MEMS
Sensors - Smart Sensors.
 PHOTO CONDUCTIVE CELL
• A photoconductive cell is a light-sensitive semiconductor device whose electrical conductivity
varies with the intensity of incident light.
It consists of a light sensitive photoconductive material, such as Cadmium Sulfide(CdS) or
Amorphous silicon arranged between two electrical contacts.
The resistance of the cell decreases with increasing light intensity, making it useful in various
applications like light sensors and automatic lighting systems.
Photoconductive cells are also known as photoresistive devices or Light Dependent
Resistors(LDRs)
CIRCUIT SYMBOL OF THE PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELL
 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

• The photoconductive cell (PC) is a two-terminal light-sensitive semiconductor device.

• The semiconductor materials are made in the form of zig-zag strips with their ends being attached
to external pins. The whole assembly is enclosed in a glass cover or protected in transparent
plastic.

• Cadmium sulfide (CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe) are the materials that are normally used in
photoconductive cell manufacture.

• Nowadays, other materials like lead selenide and lead telluride are also used in the manufacture of
photoconductive cells.
 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

• The simple circuit for a photoconductive cell is shown in the figure below:

•In the circuit shown, the resistance of the photoconductive cell is in series with an external
resistance(R) which limits the current. A bias voltage is also used in series with the photoconductive
cell.
•In the absence of light, the resistance of the photoconductive cell is very high and hence the current as
measured using an ammeter is also very low. This current is called dark current and the resistance
corresponding to this is called dark resistance.
 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

• This reduction in current leads to a voltage drop across the load resistor R.

• When the photoconductive cell is exposed to external light, the resistance of the photoconductive
cell decreases, resulting in a large current flow called the joint current. This is because the light
energy supplied to the photoconductive cell causes its covalent bonds to be broken, resulting in the
creation of electron-hole pairs.

• Due to this increase in the number of charge carriers, the resistance of the material is proportional
to the number of charge carriers.
 APPLICATIONS

• The photoconductive cells are used in light-sensitive alarms, fast recording situations, automatic
street lights, Lightning control, etc.

• The photoconductive cells can be used for detecting the location of aircraft and ships with the help
of radiation coming out from their exhaust.

• They are used to either switch on or off the transistors in electronic circuits.

• Photoconductive cells are used at the LED current level.

 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
• A photovoltaic (PV) cell is a semiconductor device that converts sunlight (or any light energy)
directly into electrical energy by the photovoltaic effect.
• Basic building block of solar panels.

• Produces DC electricity when exposed to light.

 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL-
CONSTRUCTION
• A typical photovoltaic cell consists of:

• Transparent cover → allows sunlight to enter, protects cell.

• Anti-reflective coating → prevents loss of light due to reflection.

• Front electrical contact (metallic grid) → allows light to pass but conducts current.

• Semiconductor layers:

• p-type layer (thin, on top).

• n-type layer (below).

• Together form a p–n junction.

• Back electrical contact → completes the circuit.

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL-WORKING
• When sunlight (photons) falls on the p–n junction:

• Photons excite electrons → electron-hole pairs created.

• Electric field at p–n junction separates charges:

• Electrons move to n-side.

• Holes move to p-side.

• Movement of charges generates an EMF (voltage).

• When external circuit is connected → current flows.

• ⚡ Output: Direct Current (DC) proportional to incident light intensity.

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL-
APPLICATIONS

•Solar panels → renewable power generation.

•Space satellites → main source of power.
•Solar calculators and watches.
•Streetlights and traffic signals (solar-powered).
•Remote areas → water pumping, lighting, small appliances.
 PHOTORESISTIVE CELL
• A photoresistive cell is a type of light-sensitive resistor whose
resistance decreases when the intensity of incident light increases.
• Also known as Light Dependent Resistor (LDR).
• Made of semiconductor materials like cadmium sulfide (CdS) or
cadmium selenide (CdSe).
 PHOTORESISTIVE CELL-
CONSTRUCTION
•A thin layer of semiconductor material is deposited on an insulating base.
•The semiconductor track is arranged in a zig-zag pattern to increase surface area.
•Two metallic electrodes are connected at the ends.
•The device is enclosed in a transparent case so that light can fall on the semiconductor.
 PHOTORESISTIVE CELL-WORKING
PRINCIPLE
• In darkness:

• Very few electrons are available in the conduction band → high resistance (in mega-ohms).

• Under illumination:

• Photons strike the semiconductor → electron-hole pairs are generated.

• Conductivity increases → resistance decreases drastically.

• Thus, resistance is inversely proportional to incident light intensity.

PHOTORESISTIVE CELL-
APPLICATIONS

•Automatic streetlights (turn ON at night, OFF in daylight).

•Intruder/burglar alarms.
•Camera exposure meters.
•Solar garden lights.
•Brightness control in televisions and displays.
 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS

• A fiber optic sensor is a sensor that uses optical fibers to detect changes in
parameters like temperature, pressure, strain, displacement, or rotation by
modulating light traveling through the fiber.
FIBER OPTIC SENSORS-
CONSTRUCTIONS

•Light source (LED or laser diode).

•Optical fiber (core + cladding + protective coating).
•Sensing region (where physical parameter affects light).
•Photodetector (converts optical signals to electrical).
•Signal processor (amplifies and displays results).
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
•Light from a source (LED/laser) is guided through the optical fiber.
•When the external environment (temperature, pressure, vibration, strain) changes, it alters one or more
properties of light:
•Intensity
•Phase
•Wavelength
•Polarization
•These changes are detected at the output using a photodetector → converted into electrical signals.
FIBER OPTIC SENSORS-TYPES

(a) Intrinsic Fiber Optic Sensors

• The parameter to be measured directly affects the light within the fiber.

• Example: strain measurement, temperature sensing.

(b) Extrinsic Fiber Optic Sensors

• Fiber is used to transmit light to and from an external sensing region.

• Example: displacement sensors, pressure measurement.

 TYPES BASED ON MEASURED
PARAMETER
• Intensity-based sensors → Measure change in light intensity.
• Phase-based sensors → Use interferometry to measure strain,
pressure.
• Wavelength-based sensors (e.g., Fiber Bragg Grating - FBG) → Detect
shifts in reflected wavelength.
• Polarization-based sensors → Detect changes in polarization due to
stress/temperature.
 ADVANTAGES
• Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
• Lightweight and compact.
• Can operate in hazardous or remote environments.
• High sensitivity and accuracy.
• Capable of multiplexing (multiple sensors in one fiber).
 LIMITATIONS
• Expensive compared to conventional sensors.
• Requires precise alignment and fragile handling.
• Signal processing can be complex.
 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS-
APPLICATIONS
• Medical field: Endoscopy, biomedical sensors.

• Telecommunication: Signal transmission with low loss.

• Structural health monitoring: Bridges, buildings, aircraft.

• Industrial monitoring: Pressure, temperature, chemical sensing.

• Defense & aerospace: Navigation, gyroscopes.

FIBER OPTIC SENSORS
 PRESSURE SENSOR
• A pressure sensor is a device that measures the force per unit area exerted
by a fluid (gas or liquid) on a surface and converts it into an electrical
signal.
Types of Pressure Sensors
1. Diaphragm Pressure Sensor
2. Bellows Pressure Sensor
3. Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor
4. Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor
5. Capacitive Pressure Sensor
6. Optical / Fiber Optic Pressure Sensor
 TYPES OF PRESSURE SENSORS

• Diaphragm Pressure Sensor

Working: A thin membrane (metal or silicon) deflects when pressure is
applied.
The deflection is converted into an electrical signal using capacitive,
inductive, resistive, or optical techniques.
Applications: Biomedical (blood pressure monitoring), industrial
process control.
DIAPHRAGM PRESSURE SENSOR
 BELLOWS PRESSURE SENSOR
• Uses a corrugated, flexible tube (bellows) that expands/contracts
with pressure.
• Mechanical displacement of bellows is converted to an electrical
output.
• Applications: HVAC, pneumatic systems, altitude measurement.
PIEZOELECTRIC PRESSURE SENSOR
• Based on the piezoelectric effect: certain crystals (quartz, PZT) produce an electrical charge when
subjected to mechanical stress.
• Advantages: Fast response, suitable for dynamic measurements (vibration, shock).
• Limitations: Not ideal for static (constant) pressure.
• Applications: Engine combustion monitoring, vibration measurement, microphones.
PIEZORESISTIVE PRESSURE SENSOR
• Uses semiconductor strain gauges.
• Pressure-induced strain changes the resistance of the material.
• Output signal is proportional to applied pressure.
• Advantages: High sensitivity, low cost.
• Applications: Automotive (tire pressure monitoring), consumer
electronics, industrial process control.
 ACOUSTIC SENSORS

• Detect sound waves or vibrations in air/solid.

• Use microphones, piezoelectric films, or optical fibers.
• Applications: Noise monitoring, sonar, structural health monitoring.

Type Principle Best Use Case

Diaphragm Membrane deflection Medical, industrial
Bellows Expansion/contraction HVAC, altitude
Piezoelectric Charge generation Dynamic pressure, vibration
Piezoresistive Resistance change Automotive, electronics
Capacitive Capacitance change MEMS, barometric
Optical/Fiber Optic Light modulation Biomedical, harsh environments
 TEMPERATURE SENSOR
• Temperature sensor is a device, used to measure the temperature
using an electrical signal. It requires a thermocouple or
RTD(Resistance temperature Detector). It is the most common and
most popular sensor.
Temperature sensor, the change in the temperature correspond to
change in its physical property like resistance or voltage.
 WORKING
• The measurement of the temperature sensor is about the coolness or
hotness of an entity.
The working of the sensor is the voltage that read across to the diode.
If increment in voltage, then the temperature increases and there is a
voltage decrement between the transistor's terminals of emitter &
base. That data saved by the sensor.
• If the difference in voltage is amplified, then analog signal is
generated by the device, and it is directly proportional to the
temperature.
 TYPES OF TEMPERATURE SENSOR
• Thermocouple sensor
• Thermistor sensor
• Resistance temperature detector
• Thermometer
• IR temperature sensor
• Semiconductor based sensor
 IC Temperature Sensors
• Solid-state devices fabricated using semiconductor technology.
• Provide output as voltage or current proportional to temperature.
• Examples: LM35 (voltage output), AD590 (current output).
• Advantages: Linear response, compact, easy to interface with
microcontrollers.
• Applications: Digital thermometers, electronic devices, HVAC.
 Thermistor
• Temperature-sensitive resistor.
• Two types: NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) → resistance
decreases with rise in temperature, PTC (Positive Temperature
Coefficient) → resistance increases with rise in temperature.
• Advantages: High sensitivity, inexpensive.
• Limitations: Non-linear response, limited temperature range.
• Applications: Overheat protection, temperature measurement in
appliances.
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
• Made of platinum (Pt100, Pt1000), whose resistance increases
linearly with temperature.
• Very accurate, stable, and repeatable.
• Advantages: Wide range, high precision.
• Limitations: Costlier, slower response than thermocouples.
• Applications: Industrial process control, laboratory temperature
measurement.
 THERMOCOUPLE
• Formed by joining two dissimilar metals → generates an EMF
proportional to the temperature difference (Seebeck effect).
• Advantages: Simple, rugged, wide temperature range (–200°C to
1800°C).
• Limitations: Less accurate than RTD, requires reference junction.
• Applications: Furnaces, gas turbines, aerospace, metallurgy.
 NON-CONTACT SENSORS
• Measure physical parameters without direct contact with the object.
• Types: Infrared temperature sensors, ultrasonic sensors,
inductive/capacitive proximity sensors.
• Advantages: No wear and tear, safe in hazardous environments.
• Applications: Robotics, automation, medical thermometers, motion
detection.
 CHEMICAL SENSORS
• Detect and measure specific chemical substances by converting
concentration into an electrical signal.
• Types: Electrochemical (pH sensors, gas sensors), optical,
semiconductor gas sensors.
• Applications: Air quality monitoring, medical diagnostics (glucose
sensors), industrial safety.
MEMS Sensors (Micro-Electro-
Mechanical Systems)
• Miniaturized devices integrating mechanical and electrical
components on a chip.
• Common types: Accelerometers, gyroscopes, pressure sensors,
microphones.
• Advantages: Very small, low cost, low power, mass-producible.
• Applications: Smartphones, wearables, automotive airbags,
biomedical devices.
 SMART SENSORS
• Sensors integrated with signal processing, calibration, and
communication capabilities.
• Can self-diagnose, self-calibrate, and connect to IoT systems.
• Advantages: High accuracy, reliability, real-time monitoring,
network-ready.
• Applications: Smart homes, wearable health trackers, industrial IoT,
environmental monitoring.