Waste water treatment
The degree to which suspended solids must be removed from wastewater depends on
the type of receiving water into which the effluent is discharged.
The biodegradable organics in wastewater are composed mainly of: Proteins (amino
acids), Carbohydrates (sugars, starch, cellulose), Lipids (fats, oil, grease) These all
contain carbon and can be converted to carbon dioxide biologically. Proteins also contain
nitrogen.
Treatment:
Primary Processes Removal of insoluble particulate materials by
settling, screening, addition of alum and other coagulation
agents, and other physical procedures
Secondary Biological removal of dissolved organic matter
Trickling filters, Activated sludge, Lagoons, Extended aeration
systems, Anaerobic digesters
Tertiary Biological removal of inorganic nutrients, Chemical removal of
inorganic nutrients, Virus removal/inactivation Trace chemical
removal
Preliminary & Primary Treatment
• Processes:
• - Screening: coarse and fine screens remove debris
• - Grit chamber: removes sand, stones, heavy solids
• - Sedimentation tank: settles suspended solids
• Efficiency: 50–70% TSS, 25–40% BOD removed
Screening is the first step of treatment in a wastewater treatment works. The objective of screens is to
remove large floating debris, such as rags (~60%), paper (~25%), and plastics (~5%). The materials that
are removed from the water by the screens are referred to as screenings.
Grit Removal: The second step of preliminary treatment immediately downstream of screening is
normally grit removal. Grit includes heavy inorganic particles such as sand, gravel, and other heavy
particulate matter
(e.g. corn kernels, bone fragments, coffee grounds). For design purposes grit is normally considered as fine
sand, with a diameter of 0.2 mm, specific gravity of 2.65 mm, and a settling velocity of 20 mm/s.
Grit removal is an important preliminary treatment process for several reasons: To protect
mechanical equipment and pumps from abrasive wear, Prevent pipe clogging by deposition of grit, Reduce
accumulation of grit in settling tanks and digesters.
Wastewater contains impurities which in flowing water will remain in suspension but in quiescent
water will settle under the influence of gravity. The sedimentation process, also called ‘settling’ or
‘clarification’, exploits this phenomenon and is used for the separation of solids from water and the
concentration of separated solids. Sedimentation is used in both the primary and secondary
treatment stages of wastewater treatment.
In this biological degradation occurs in which the remaining suspended solids are
microorganisms and the number of pathogens is reduced
Effluent from primary treatment usually undergoes aerobic biological treatments such as-
trickling filter, rotary biological contractors, fluidized bed reactors, stabilization ponds,
activated sludge, aerated lagoons, etc.
Two type of sludge digestion:
Fixed film / attached growth’ digestion- In this the cells are
attached onto a surface as a biofilm and water is passed over the
surface. Ex: trickling filter, rotary biological contractors, fluidized
bed reactors
Dispersed growth digestion- In this the bacterial cells are
suspended in the water column in a tank. Ex: stabilization ponds,
activated sludge, aerated lagoons
The aim of biological treatment is to transfer dissolved organic contaminants
(e.g. BOD) from a soluble form into suspended matter in the form of cell
biomass, which can then be subsequently removed by particle-separation
processes (e.g. sedimentation).
The most effective biological processes for removing dissolved organics in this way
are aerobic processes, since they are fastest and their products are relatively
inoffensive (H2O, CO2).
Typically oxygen must be added to the wastewater to support the aerobic process,
either through bubbling air into the water or through mixing.
Conceptually, the aerobic process can be simplified as:
Organic Matter + Bacteria + O2 → New Cells (Biomass) + CO2, H2O, NH3
Activated Sludge System
An aerobic activated sludge system involves the horizontal flow of materials with recycling
of sludge—the active biomass that is formed when organic matter is oxidized and
degraded by microorganisms.
Activated sludge systems can be designed with variations in mixing. In addition, the ratio
of organic matter added to the active microbial biomass can be varied.
A low rate system (low nutrient input per unit of microbial biomass), with slower growing
microorganisms, will produce an effluent with low residual levels of dissolved organic
matter.
A high-rate system (high nutrient input per unit of microbial biomass), with faster growing
microorganisms, will remove more dissolved organic carbon per unit time but produce a
poorer quality effluent.
The combination of waste water and biological mass is commonly known as mixed liquor.
In all activated sludge plants, once the waste water has received sufficient treatment,
excess mixed liquor is discharged into settling tanks and the treated supernatant is run off
to undergo further treatment before discharge.
Part of the settled material, the sludge, is returned to the head of the aeration system to
re-seed the new waste water entering the tank. This fraction of the floc is called return
activated sludge (RAS). Excess sludge is called surplus activated sludge (SAS) or waste
activated sludge (WAS).
The activated sludge process involves
Aerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion
Aerobic digestion
is an extension of the activated sludge aeration process whereby waste primary and
secondary sludges are continually aerated for long periods of time.
In aerobic digestion the microorganisms extend into the endogenous respiration phase,
which is a phase where materials previously stored by the cell are oxidized, with a reduction
in the biologically degradable organic matter.
This organic matter, from the sludge cells is oxidized to carbon dioxide, water and ammonia.
The ammonia is further converted to nitrates as the digestion process proceeds.
Eventually, the oxygen uptake rate levels off and the sludge matter is reduced to inorganic
matter and relatively stable volatile solids.
The major advantage of aerobic digestion is that it produces a biologically stable end
product suitable for subsequent treatment in a variety of processes.
Parameters: Some parameters affecting the aerobic digestion process are: (1) rate of
sludge oxidation, (2) sludge temperature, (3) system oxygen requirements, (4) sludge
loading rate, (5) sludge age, and (6) sludge solids characteristics.
Air Requirement: A dissolved oxygen concentration of 1 to 2 ppm should be maintained
in the aerobic digestion tanks.
The advantages most often claimed for aerobic digestion are:
- A humus-like, biologically stable end product is produced.
- The stable end product has no odors, therefore, simple land disposal, such as lagoons, is
feasible.
- Capital costs for an aerobic system are low, when compared with anaerobic digestion and other
schemes.
- Supernatant liquors from aerobic digestion have a lower BOD than those from anaerobic
digestion. Most tests indicated that BOD would be less than 100 ppm. This advantage is
important because the efficiency of many treatment plants is reduced as a result of recycling high
BOD supernatant liquors.
Disadvantages:
- The major disadvantage associated with aerobic digestion is high power
costs.
- the lack of methane gas production and the variable solids reduction
efficiency with varying temperature changes.
Anaerobic sludge digestion:
The purpose of the anaerobic process is to convert sludge to end products of
liquid and gases while producing as little biomass as possible.
The process is much more economical than aerobic digestion. Anaerobic
digestion is accomplished in following four stages:
1. Hydrolysis: large polymers are broken down by enzymes.
2. Fermentation: Acidogenic fermentations are most important, acetate is
the main end product. Volatile fatty acids are also produced along with
carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
3. Acetogenesis: Breakdown of volatile acids to acetate and hydrogen.
4. Methanogenesis: Acetate, formaldehyde, hydrogen and carbon dioxide
are converted to methane and water.
An anaerobic sludge digester is designed to encourage the
growth of anaerobic bacteria, particularly the methane
producing bacteria that decreases organic solids by
reducing them to soluble substances and gases, mostly
carbon dioxide and methane.
The sludge that remains is relatively stable and inert. From
50% to 60% of the organics are metabolized with less than
10% converted to biomass.
The anaerobic process is made up of two basic types of
bacteria. The acid formers and the methane formers.
The acid formers are facultative bacteria and include
organisms that solubilize organic solids through hydrolysis.
Soluble products are then fermented to acids and alcohols
of low molecular weight.
The methane formers are strict anaerobics that convert
acids and alcohol along with hydrogen and carbon dioxide
to methane.
Trickling Filters - The key components of a trickling filter are:
1. A dosing system for applying the wastewater
2. A bed of randomly packed solid media
3. An under drainage system for collection of the treated effluent
4. A ventilation system for supplying oxygen to the filter
5. A system for separating the detached biofilm (also called humus) from the treated
effluent.
Wastewater is spread on the media surface and trickles down
through the media on which the biofilm is attached.
The biological activity of the biofilm is the primary mechanism
of removal of dissolved organic matter, more so than filtration /
attachment onto the media surface.
BOD stabilisation occurs at the film / wastewater interface with
a fairly short contact time (20-30 seconds).
The process works due to the large surface area of the biofilm
on the media surfaces.
Because the organisms remain in place attached to the media
surfaces, very long sludge ages and high cell masses can be
achieved.
Conditions in trickling filters are mainly aerobic and the
microbial community includes a mixture of bacteria, protozoa,
and fungi.
The biofilm (zoogleal film ) organisms are attached to the
surface and protected by a coating of extracellular
polysaccharides (EPS), leading to a very robust, hardy film that
can tolerate changing conditions quite well.
The biofilm layer is microscopic in thickness (i.e. << 1mm).
The biofilm layer is microscopic in thickness (i.e. << 1mm).
Biofilm growth is outwards from the media surface, eventually leading to ‘sloughing’, due to
endogenous decay and anaerobic conditions at the biofilm/media interface.
Attachment weakens and the film shears off; the biofilm quickly re- establishes, however.
The sloughed biofilm is referred to as ‘humus’. The humus is removed from the treated effluent
by a clarifier downstream.
Humus normally settles well and is often re-circulated to the primary clarifier to serve as a
settling aid.
The regular sloughing of the biofilm results in an effluent that is low in BOD but high in SS,
therefore the design and operation of the secondary clarifier is critical.
Higher loading rates can be used for the secondary clarifier than in activated sludge treatment
due to the good settling characteristics of the humus.
Modern trickling filters use synthetic media which are specially designed to have large surface
area and porosity and typically made of plastic. Traditional media include crushed stone, typically
with 25-100 mm diameter and a maximum 2 m bed depth. Other media include rock, slag, and
redwood.
A conventional trickling filter plant can achieve a 20:30 effluent (i.e. < 20 mg/l of BOD, < 30 mg/l
of SS) at the organic loading rates between 0.06-0.12 kg BOD per m3 per day or hydraulic loading
rates of 0.25-1.2 m3 per m2 per day.
The advantages of trickling filters are:
- Generally able to meet a 20:30 effluent standard,
with nitrification at lower rates
- No / low power requirements
- Relatively simple operation
- Quiet and does not foam
- Quicker recovery to changes in influent BOD and
flow (compared to activated sludge)
- Easier secondary clarifier design due to good
settling of humus.
The disadvantages of trickling filters include:
- Higher space requirements than activated sludge
- Possible fly and odor problems
- Possibly clogging problems.
2) Rotating Biological Contactors: Rotating biological contactors (RBCs) are another
type of attached growth process, consisting of a series of closely packed plastic discs
of a shaft, rotating and partially submerged in wastewater.
RBCs use the same principles as a trickling filter except now the media rotates and
the wastewater is stationary. Rotation of the discs allows alternating contact of the
biological film on the disc with the organic matter in the wastewater and then with
the oxygen in the air, thereby maintaining aerobic conditions.
During the passage in the air or gas space, the liquid drains from the plates or
packing and oxygen can diffuse in the remaining thin film of liquid and ultimately
reach the biomass itself, and simultaneously CO2 can escape.
The rotation of the discs also removes excess solids by shearing and maintains the
sloughed material in suspension for removal in a downstream clarifier.
RBCs are a more intensified process than trickling filters, with higher concentrations
of organisms in the biofilm. RBCs can easily achieve a 20:30 effluent, with typically
greater than 90% removal of BOD.
The discs are made of wood, metal or plastic. They are typically up to 4 m in diameter
and rotate on a shaft up to 7 m long at a rotational speed of 1-2 rotations per minute,
with 40% of the discs immersed in wastewater.
The key design variables are the media design, the speed of the drive shaft, the
trough volume below the discs, and the depth of immersion. A typical loading rate is
3-8 g of BOD per m2 per day, although high rate variations can treat 20+ g of BOD per
m2 per day.
The advantages of RBCs include:
-Compact size (small land
requirement compared to equivalent
treatment by trickling filters)
- Ease of operation
- Low power consumption relative
to activated sludge (no need for
aeration)
- Usually no need to recycle the
sludge.
The disadvantages of RBCs include:
- Must protect from weather (heat,
cold, intense sunlight)
- High capital cost Potential for
mechanical failures.
Oxidation ponds or Lagoons –Classified into four types
Aerobic Ponds – Wastewaters containing organic impurities are
purified by the action of aerobic bacteria and algae. Oxygen is
supplied by natural diffusion across the pond surface, and by algal
photosynthesis.
These are shallow ponds (depth 0.3 m or less) designed to maximize
the growth of algae.
Aerobic conditions are maintained throughout the depth of the
pond for all the time.
Facultative ponds – These are more frequently encountered type.
These ponds have an aerobic upper zone and an anaerobic lower
zone.
The organic waste enters at one end of the pond where suspended
solids settle to the bottom.
At the bottom, an anaerobic layer develops and the settled sludge is
degraded by the anaerobic organisms to produce CO2, NH3, and CH4.
In the upper zone aerobic degradation of waste takes place.
A facultative zone exists between these two zones. It can be either
aerobic or anaerobic at various times so thatgrowth of facuktative
organisms which can adapt either conditions, is favoured.
Aerated Ponds – Oxygen is supplied byb the mechanical aerators installed on
floats or permanent base. In aerated [onds no recycle of the sludge is provided
and the digested material leaves the system. The concentration of the solids in
this case is much lower than the activated sludge system
Anaerobic Ponds – These ponds are maintained in anaerobic condition by applying
a BOD load thatb exceeds oxygen production from synthesis. Anaerobic ponds are
usually employed as pretreatment ponds for the treatment of high temperature,
high strength waste waters where the reduction in waste water strength is more
important than the effluent quality. Effluents require additional treatment before
they are discharged to water bodies.
Tertiary wastewater treatment:
Tertiary wastewater treatment is any physicochemical or biological process
employing bioreactors, precipitation, filtration, or chlorination procedures
similar to those employed for drinking water purification; absorptive
processes, such as the use of activated carbon; more efficient oxidation, as
with ozone; foam separation of impurities and demineralisation using
reverse osmosis or distillation.
Operations installed for tertiary treatment can also involve more exotic
and expensive equipment such as electrodialysis units or ion exchange
columns.
Tertiary treatment sharply reduces levels of inorganic nutrients, especially
phosphate, nitrite, and nitrate, from the final effluent and cannot support
extensive microbial growth. Tertiary treatment is the most complete
method of treating sewage but has not been widely adopted due to the
costs associated with such complete nutrient removal.
Secondary Treatment – Other
Biological Methods
• - Trickling filters: wastewater sprayed over media with biofilm
• - Rotating biological contactors (RBCs): rotating discs support
microbes
• - Oxidation ponds: low-cost, algae-bacteria symbiosis
• Used in small communities or land-available regions
Tertiary Treatment
• Processes:
• - Filtration: sand, membrane (UF, RO)
• - Disinfection: chlorination, UV, ozonation
• - Nutrient removal: N via nitrification/denitrification, P via
precipitation
• Produces high-quality effluent suitable for reuse
Sludge Treatment & Disposal
• Steps:
• - Thickening
• - Anaerobic digestion (biogas recovery)
• - Dewatering (centrifuge, belt press)
• - Disposal/reuse: land application, incineration
• Sludge management is critical for safe and sustainable operation
Case Study – Typical Plant Flow
• Municipal WWTP flow:
• Influent → Screening & Grit Removal → Primary Sedimentation →
Activated Sludge Process → Secondary Clarifier →
Filtration/Disinfection → Effluent
• Sludge: collected → digestion → dewatering → disposal/reuse
Environmental & Health Importance
• - Prevents spread of waterborne diseases
• - Protects aquatic life and ecosystems
• - Enables water reuse, ensures compliance with regulations
• - Resource recovery opportunities (biogas, nutrients, water)
Challenges & Innovations
• Challenges:
• - Energy consumption and operational costs
• - Emerging pollutants: pharmaceuticals, microplastics
• - Nutrient removal requirements
• Innovations:
• - Membrane bioreactors (MBR)
• - Zero-liquid discharge (ZLD)
• - Resource recovery technologies
Summary
• • Primary: Physical removal of solids and oils
• • Secondary: Biological removal of organics and pathogens
• • Tertiary: Advanced purification (filtration, disinfection, nutrient
removal)
• • Sludge must be managed sustainably
• • Essential for public health, environment, and reuse
References
• - Metcalf & Eddy (2004), Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and
Reuse
• - S. P. Mahajan (2002), Pollution Control in Process Industries
• - USEPA, WHO wastewater treatment manuals
• - Plant schematics and figures: Chemistry LibreTexts, Scientific
Diagrams
