Biodiversity & Conservation —

Complete Notes
• Based on the sources you provided — all
points included.
 What is Biodiversity?
• Biodiversity = immense variety of life on Earth
(from molecules to biomes).
• Term popularized by sociobiologist E.O.
Wilson.
 Vastness of Life — Examples
• Ants: ~20,000 species.
• Beetles: ~300,000 species.
• Fish: ~28,000 species.
• Orchids: nearly 20,000 species.
 Is Biodiversity New?
• Early life had very little diversity; biodiversity
increased over millions of years.
• Life's diversity today is the result of long
evolutionary history.
 Levels of Biodiversity — Overview
• Three main levels: Genetic diversity, Species
diversity, Ecological diversity.
 Genetic Diversity — Definition
• Variation within a single species at the genetic
level (different strains/varieties).
 Genetic Diversity — Examples (1)
• Rauwolfia vomitoria (Himalayas): genetic
variation in reserpine amount & strength.
• Reserpine is used to treat high blood pressure.
 Genetic Diversity — Examples (2)
• India: >50,000 genetically different rice strains.
• India: ~1,000 varieties of mango.
 Species Diversity — Definition &
Example
• Species diversity = number of different species
in an area.
• Example: Western Ghats have more
amphibian species than Eastern Ghats.
Ecological Diversity — Definition &
Example
• Ecological diversity = variety of ecosystems in
a region.
• Example: India has deserts, rainforests,
mangroves, wetlands — more varied than
Norway.
 Recorded Species on Earth
• IUCN (2004): slightly more than 1.5 million
species named (other source states 1.7–
1.8M).
 Estimated Total Species — Robert
May
• Robert May estimates ~7 million total species
on Earth.
• Only ~22% (roughly) have been discovered so
far per this estimate.
 Species Distribution by Groups
• Over 70% of recorded species are animals;
plants (incl. algae, fungi) ≈22%.
• Insects are the most diverse animal group —
>70% of all animal species.
• Fungi species outnumber the combined
vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles,
mammals).
 Prokaryotes (Microbes)
• Traditional estimates exclude prokaryotes
(bacteria) due to identification limits.
• Many microbes cannot be cultured; if
counted, microbial species would add millions
more.
 India's Biodiversity — Overview
• India = 2.4% of world land area but ~8.1% of
global species diversity.
• India is one of 12 mega-diversity countries.
India's Recorded Species Numbers
• Recorded: ~45,000 plant species and ~90,000
animal species.
• Based on global estimates, >100,000 plant
species and >300,000 animal species may still
be undiscovered in India.
 Patterns of Biodiversity —
Latitudinal Gradient
• Biodiversity highest in tropics, decreases
toward poles.
• Examples illustrate strong latitudinal
differences in species counts.
 Latitudinal Examples
• Colombia (near equator): ~1,400 bird species.
• New York state (41°N): ~105 bird species.
• Greenland (71°N): ~56 bird species.
• India: >1,200 bird species overall.
• Amazon rainforest: ~40,000 plant species,
3,000 fish species, 1,300 bird species.
Why Tropics Have High Biodiversity
— Long Evolutionary Time
• Tropical regions remained relatively
undisturbed for millions of years → more time
for speciation.
• Temperate regions faced frequent glaciations,
reducing long-term diversification.
Why Tropics — Stable Environment
& Specialization
• Less seasonal variability in tropics encourages
niche specialization and coexistence.
• Predictable climates reduce extinction
pressure and favor diversification.
 Why Tropics — Solar Energy &
Productivity
• Higher incoming solar energy increases
primary productivity, supporting more species
and trophic levels.
 Species–Area Relationship —
History
• Concept proposed by Alexander von
Humboldt: species richness increases with
area sampled but tends to plateau.
 Species–Area Relationship —
Equation
• S = C A^Z
• Log form: log S = log C + Z log A (on log–log
scale this is a straight line).
 Species–Area Relationship — Z
Value
• Typical Z for smaller areas: 0.1–0.2.
• For very large areas (continents): Z ≈ 0.6–1.2
(steeper slopes).
• Example: Fruit-eating birds & mammals in
tropical forests across continents: Z = 1.15.
• Interpretation: larger Z → faster increase in
species richness with area.
Importance of Species Diversity —
Stability
• Communities with more species are generally
more stable.
• Stable community traits: (1) little variation in
productivity year-to-year, (2) resistance to
disturbances, (3) resistance to invasions.
 David Tilman's Experiments
• Tilman's plots: more species → higher
productivity and reduced year-to-year
biomass variation.
 Rivet-Popper Hypothesis
• Paul Ehrlich analogy: ecosystem = airplane,
species = rivets.
• Removing some rivets may have little effect at
first, but removing many (or key rivets) can
cause collapse.
• Loss of key species has disproportionately
large impacts.
 Loss of Biodiversity — Overview
• Human activities are driving rapid biodiversity
decline (anthropogenic extinction).
• Example: human colonization of Pacific islands
→ extinction of >2,000 native bird species.
 Documented Extinctions (IUCN &
Examples)
• IUCN Red List (2004): 784 species extinct in
the last 500 years; 27 species in the last 20
years (as cited).
• Famous extinctions: Dodo (Mauritius), Quagga
(Africa), Thylacine (Australia), Steller's sea cow
(Russia), Bali/Javan/Caspian tiger subspecies.
Current Threat Status & Sixth Mass
Extinction
• ~15,500+ species currently threatened
worldwide (per provided sources).
• Threat levels vary: Amphibians ≈32%
threatened, Gymnosperms ≈31%, Mammals
≈23%, Birds ≈12%.
• We are in the sixth mass extinction: rate is
100–1,000× faster than previous mass
extinctions.
• Projection (if trends continue): nearly half of
all species could be lost within the next 100
 Causes of Biodiversity Loss —
HOAC Overview
• HOAC acronym for main causes: H = Habitat
loss & fragmentation, O = Over-exploitation, A
= Alien species invasions, C = Co-extinctions.
H — Habitat Loss & Fragmentation
• Most important cause of extinction.
• Tropical rainforests once covered ~14% of
land, now ~6% (major loss).
• Amazon clearing for farming & cattle ranching
is a key example.
• Fragmentation especially harms species
needing large territories and migratory
animals.
 O — Over-exploitation
• Over-harvesting drives species to extinction
(e.g., Steller's sea cow, passenger pigeon).
• Many marine fish populations are currently
over-exploited.
 A — Alien Species Invasions
• Introduced species without natural predators
can outcompete natives.
• Nile perch in Lake Victoria → extinction of
>200 cichlid species.
• Invasive weeds in India: Parthenium (Carrot
grass), Lantana, Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia).
• Illegal introduction of African catfish threatens
native Indian catfish.
 C — Co-extinctions
• When one species goes extinct, dependent
species may follow.
• Examples: host-specific parasites when their
host disappears; plant–pollinator mutualisms
(e.g., Yucca & its moth).
 Why Conserve Biodiversity —
Three Arguments (Overview)
• Narrowly utilitarian, Broadly utilitarian
(ecosystem services), Ethical argument
(intrinsic value).
 Narrowly Utilitarian
• Focus on direct economic benefits: food,
firewood, industrial products, medicines.
• Over 25% of drugs sold today derived from
plants.
• Bioprospecting = exploring biodiversity for
economically valuable products.
 Broadly Utilitarian
• Ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating,
cultural services, and supporting services.
• Examples: Amazon produces ~20% of Earth's
oxygen (as cited), pollination by insects
supports food supply, aesthetic & recreational
values.
 Ethical Argument
• Every species has intrinsic right to exist
irrespective of human benefit.
• Moral duty to protect life and pass natural
heritage to future generations.
 How to Conserve Biodiversity —
Two Main Approaches
• 1) In-situ conservation (on-site): protect
species within natural habitats.
• 2) Ex-situ conservation (off-site): protect
species outside natural habitats (zoos, seed
banks, etc.).
In-situ Conservation — Biodiversity
Hotspots
• Hotspots: high species richness, high
endemism, under threat from habitat loss.
• Originally 25 hotspots; now 34 globally.
• Hotspots cover <2% of Earth's land but
protecting them could reduce current mass
extinction rate by ~30%.
• India's hotspots: Western Ghats & Sri Lanka,
Indo-Burma, Himalaya.
 In-situ Conservation — Protected
Areas & Sacred Groves
• India: 14 Biosphere Reserves, 90 National
Parks, 448 Wildlife Sanctuaries (as cited).
• Sacred groves: community-protected forest
tracts (examples: Khasi & Jaintia Hills, Aravalli,
Western Ghats regions,
Sarguja/Chanda/Bastar).
Ex-situ Conservation — Traditional
Methods
• Zoos, botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks
used to protect species outside natural
habitats.
 Ex-situ Conservation — Advanced
Methods
• Cryopreservation of gametes, IVF, tissue
culture for propagation, and seed banks for
long-term storage.
 Global Conservation Efforts
• Earth Summit (1992, Rio de Janeiro): global
call for biodiversity conservation.
• World Summit on Sustainable Development
(2002, Johannesburg): 190 countries pledged
to significantly reduce biodiversity loss by
2010 (as cited).
 Summary & Key Takeaways
• Biodiversity is vast and multi-level (genetic,
species, ecological).
• Tropical regions hold the highest biodiversity;
species–area laws and Z-values quantify
patterns.
• Human activities (HOAC) are driving a rapid
loss — we face a human-caused sixth mass
extinction.
• Conservation requires both in-situ and ex-situ
approaches plus global cooperation.
 Notes on Sources & Data
• All facts, numbers, and examples are taken
from the sources you provided in the notes.
• If you want citations or a speaker note script
for each slide, I can add them.