Table of content

Title Page
1, Respiratory system…………………………………………………………………….... 3
1.1 , upper respiratory system…………………………………………………….....3
1.2, lower respiratory system………………………………………………………….4
2, Trachea…………………………………………………………………………………………….5
2.1 function…………………………………………………………………………………….5
2.2 blood supply………………………………………………………………………........8
2.3 innervation………………………………………………………………………………..9
3, Bronchi……………………………………………………………………………………………….10
3.1 function………………………………………………………………………………….….12
3.2 blood supply………………………………………………………………………………13
3.3 innervation…………………………………………………………………………………14
4, Bronchiole………………………………………………………………………………………….15
4.1 function……………………………………………………………………………............15
4.2blood supply…………………………………………………………………………………17
4.3 innervation………………………………………………………………………………....18

5,Alveoil.......................................................... ............................................19
5.1,function.................................................................................................20

5.2blood. Supply .......................................................................................21

5.3 innervation............................................................................................22

Summery.......................................................................................................23
Reference.........................................................................................................24
 Respiratory system
The respiratory system is a network of organs and tissues responsible for gas exchange, specifically
taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide

The nose ,pharynx ,larynx ,trachea, bronchus ,bronchiole, alveolar duct and air sacs called alveoli

There are 2 types of structural classification of RS

1 , upper respiratory track

• Includes : larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Bronchioles
 Lungs fig 2
 Trachea
• A flexible tube also called windpipe
• The trachea is very flexible and mobile
• A large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage, extending from
the larynx to the bronchial tubes and conveying air to and from the lungs
• Lies anterior to the esophagus and inferior to the larynx
• Anterior and lateral walls of the trachea supported by 15 to 20 c shaped tracheal
cartilage
• Posterior part of tube lined by trachealis muscle
• Lined by ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
The trachea has three functions:
Provide a safe, sturdy passageway for air to travel from the mouth or nose to the
lungs.
Prevent the passage of foreign objects into the respiratory system.
Regulate the temperature and humidity of air passing into the lungs.

•
Layers:
Mucosa= is the innermost layer
lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium and goblet cells that produce mucus
Submucosa= contain loose connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerves
Hyaline cartilage= 16 to 20 incomplete rings ,
provides support and keeps the trachea open.
The last tracheal cartilage is expanded and a spar of cartilage called carina
Adventitia =it’s the outermost layer . it’s connective tissue that anchors the trachea to
surrounding structures.
• The blood supply of trachea
• The trachea receives its blood supply from multiple arteries, mainly the inferior
thyroid artery and bronchial arteries
• These vessels form a rich network along the tracheal wall
• They nourish the mucosa, smooth muscles, and cartilaginous rings
• The inferior thyroid artery supplies the cervical (upper) part
• The bronchial arteries supply the thoracic (lower) part
• These arteries anastomose, ensuring constant blood flow.
The trachea is innervated by

• The vagus nerve (parasympathetic fibers), which controls the smooth muscle tone
and glandular secretions.
• Sympathetic fibers from the upper thoracic spinal cord (T1–T4) travel through the
sympathetic trunk to regulate blood vessel constriction in the tracheal wall.
• Sensory fibers from the vagus nerve, especially via the internal branch of the
superior laryngeal nerve, provide sensation and help trigger protective reflexes like
coughing. This balanced innervation helps maintain airway function and protect the
respiratory tract.
 Bronchi
• It’s the major air passage of the lung which diverge from the trachea
• Inferiorly the trachea bifurcates into two smaller tubes called the right and left
primary bronchi
• Each primary bronchus projects laterally toward each lung
• Right primary bronchus is shorter wider and more vertically oriented than the left
primary bronchus
• Bronchial tree
- A highly branched system – air conducting passages
-orginate from the left and right primary bronchi
• Progressively branch into narrower tubes as they diverge throughout the lung before
terminating in terminal bronchioles
• Primary bronchi – incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage ensure that they remain
open
Right main bronchus: wider , shorter and more vertical
Left main bronchus: narrower, longer , and more horizontal
• Secondary bronchi – branch of primary bronchus
Left lung: two lobes
:Two secondary bronchi
Right lung : three lobes
: three secondary bronchi
• Tertiary bronchi - branch of secondary bronchi
-Left lung is supplied by 8 to 10 tertiary bronchi
- right lung supplied by 10 tertiary bronchi
-Supply part of the lung called a bronchopulmonary segment
 The function of the bronchi
•
The main function of the bronchi is to conduct air from the trachea into the lungs.
• They serve as passageways that branch into smaller tubes (bronchioles), eventually leading
to the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
• The bronchi also help filter, warm, and moisten the air before it reaches the lungs .
 The blood supply of bronchi
• the bronchi receive their arterial blood supply from the bronchial arteries, which usually
branch from the thoracic aorta, though they may also arise from the intercostal arteries.
• These arteries provide oxygenated blood to the walls of the bronchi and supporting lung
tissues.
• Venous drainage is via the bronchial veins, which drain partly into the azygos ( located on
the right side of the vertebral column in the thorax) and hemiazygos veins( located on the
left side of the vertebral column in the thorax) and partly into the pulmonary veins,
creating a connection between systemic and pulmonary circulation.
 The innervation of bronchi
• It primarily innervated by the autonomic nervous system, specifically the
parasympathetic and sympathetic branches
• 1. Parasympathetic Innervation:
• Vagus Nerve (CN X): The vagus nerve provides parasympathetic innervation to the
bronchi.
Bronchoconstriction: Parasympathetic stimulation leads to the contraction of bronchial
smooth muscle, resulting in bronchoconstriction.
Increased Secretion: It also stimulates the bronchial glands to produce more mucus.
2. Sympathetic Innervation:
Sympathetic Trunk: Sympathetic fibers reach the lungs via the sympathetic trunk.
Bronchodilation: Sympathetic stimulation causes relaxation of the bronchial smooth
muscle, leading to bronchodilation.
Decreased Secretion: It reduces the secretion of mucus from the bronchial glands.
• Bronchioles are approximately 1 mm or less in diameter
• Their walls consist of ciliated cuboidal epithelium and a layer of smooth muscle
• Tissue changes as become smaller :- cartilage plate , not ring , then disappears

:- Pseudostratified columnar to simple columnar to simple

Functions of Bronchioles

• 1. Airflow conduction

The bronchioles are part of the lower respiratory tract.

They conduct air from the larger bronchi to the alveolar ducts and alveoli.

• 2. Airflow regulation

Bronchioles have a thick layer of smooth muscle and no cartilage, so they can constrict or dilate
easily.

This allows them to regulate how much air reaches different parts of the lung.
• 3. Distribution :- They distribute air evenly to all alveoli to optimize gas exchange
• The blood supply of bronchioles
• 1. Bronchial arteries (from the thoracic aorta or intercostal arteries) supply oxygenated
blood to the walls of bronchioles.

2. Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood for gas exchange and contribute to the
capillary network around alveoli.
• 3. Venous drainage is via bronchial veins(the azygos and hemiazygos systems) and partially
into pulmonary veins
• Innervation of the bronchioles
• The bronchioles are innervated by the autonomic nervous system:

Parasympathetic fibers - cause bronchoconstriction.

Sympathetic fibers - cause bronchodilation.

Visceral sensory fibers- carry reflex and pain signals to the central nervous system.
 Respiratory zone
• Contain Alveoli :- structures that contain air exchange chambers
• ;- microscopic balloon- shaped structures and located at the end point
of respiratory tree
• Respiratory bronchioles lead into alveolar duct : walls consist of alveoli
• Duct lead into terminal clusters called alveolar sacs are microscopic chamber
• There are 3 million alveoli
• Each alveolus consists of 3 types of cell populations:
• Type 1 pneumocytes
• Type 2 pneumocytes
• Alveolar macrophages
• Aleveolar pores : they can equalize the pressure inside the alveoli
they allow collateral air circulation if the bronchioles is obstructed
• Functions:
• Allow oxygen (O₂) from inhaled air to diffuse into the
pulmonary capillaries (blood).
• Allow carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the blood to diffuse
out into the alveolar air, to be exhaled.
• Help maintain proper pH of the blood by removing
CO₂ (which forms carbonic acid in blood).
• so:
🔷 Oxygen in → to blood
🔷 Carbon dioxide out → to alveolar air
• The blood supply of alveoli
• The alveoli are supplied by pulmonary arteries, which deliver deoxygenated blood
from the right ventricle for gas exchange.
• After oxygenation in the alveolar capillaries, blood is returned to the heart via the
pulmonary veins.
• This circulation is essential for respiratory gas exchange.
• The innervation of alveoli
• The alveoli have minimal direct innervation.
• They are influenced by autonomic fibers—parasympathetic (via the vagus nerve) and
sympathetic nerves—which primarily regulate nearby airway smooth muscle and blood
vessels.
• Alveolar activity is mainly controlled by local chemical and pressure signals, not direct
nerve input.
 Summary
 The respiratory system is responsible for gas exchange, taking in oxygen and expelling carbon
dioxide. It includes structures like the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
and alveoli, and is divided into upper and lower respiratory tracts.

The trachea is a flexible tube supported by cartilage rings and lined with ciliated epithelium.
It receives blood from the inferior thyroid and bronchial arteries and is innervated by
parasympathetic (vagus) and sympathetic nerves.

The bronchi branch from the trachea and conduct air into the lungs. They are supplied by
bronchial arteries and drained by bronchial veins (azygos, hemiazygos, and pulmonary
veins). Their innervation includes both sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers, regulating
muscle tone and secretion.

Bronchioles are smaller airways without cartilage, lined by smooth muscle. They control
airflow and distribute air to alveoli. Blood supply comes from bronchial and pulmonary
arteries, with drainage through bronchial and pulmonary veins. They are innervated by
autonomic and sensory fibers .
 Alveoli are the site of gas exchange. They receive deoxygenated blood from pulmonary
arteries and return oxygenated blood via pulmonary veins. Though they lack direct
innervation, surrounding vessels and airways are controlled by autonomic input .
 Reference
Gray’s anatomy
Essential of human anatomy and physiology
Principles of anatomy and physiology
Netter anatomy