Methods of Data Collection

by
Neerja Verma
Professor & Head
Department of Library & Information Science
M.L.B. Govt. College of Excellence
Gwalior (M.P.)

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 Data
Data is a set of values of qualitative or quantitative
variables. Data is facts or figures from which conclusions
can be drawn. Before one can present and interpret
information, there has to be a process of gathering and sorting
data. Just as trees are the raw material from which paper is
produced, so too, can data be viewed as the raw material
from which information is obtained.
Gathering data can be accomplished through a primary
source (researcher is the first persont oobtain the data) or a
secondary source (the researcher obtains the data that has
already been collected by other sources, such as data
disseminated in a scientific journal)
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 Types of Data

Data collected in research can be broadly categorized into two types:

1. Quantitative Data
Quantitative data are numerical and measurable. They focus on
quantifiable variables and are often analyzed using statistical methods.
Examples: Test scores, income levels, population counts, and
temperature readings.
2. Qualitative Data
Qualitative data are descriptive and non-numerical, capturing subjective
experiences, emotions, or cultural phenomena.
Examples: Interview transcripts, open-ended survey responses, and
observational notes.
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 Primary and Secondary Data
Researchers and analysts rely on two distinct types of data,
namely primary data and secondary data.
• Primary data are unprocessed data that originate from the
source and are collected or received by a researcher directly
through surveys, interviews, or experiments. This is so
unique and customized that it highly authentic for the needs
of any researcher.
• Secondary data refers to information that is already
collected and published by someone other for example
reports, articles, or databases.
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 What is Primary Data?

• When data is collected from beginning to end for the

first time by an institution or researcher, such data is
called primary data, it is the original data, i.e. the
data that is first. It is completely renewed, and it is
called primary data. It is collected from scratch a lot of
money is spent on collecting primary data. At the same
time, manpower is also required, that is, people are
also needed.

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 What is Secondary Data?

• Secondary data is data that has already been collected

by an institution or researcher and the new researcher
generates new information about the use of this
already collected data. For example, if you already
have the population data of India, then you can easily
find out what percentage of people in your city are
literate and what percentage of people are illiterate, but
you have already collected that data from the
population data of India Therefore, this data will be
called Secondary Data.
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 Basis for Comparison Primary Data Secondary Data
Meaning Primary data refers to the first Secondary data means data
hand data gathered by the collected by someone else
researcher himself. earlier.

Data Real time data Past data

Process Very involved Quick and easy
Source Surveys, observations, Government publications,
experiments, questionnaire, websites, books, journal
personal interview, etc. articles, internal records etc.

Cost effectiveness Expensive Economical

Collection time Long Short
Specific Always specific to the May or may not be specific to
researcher's needs. the researcher's need.

Available in Crude form Refined form

Accuracy and Reliability More Relatively less
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 Pros of Primary Data

• Accuracy and Relevance: A major benefit of primary data is

that it provides precise and directly applicable information
tailored to the specific research issue. Since the data is collected
specifically for the study, it fits the research objectives perfectly.
• Control Over Data Collection: Researchers have complete
control over how the data is collected, including the sampling
method, data collection techniques, and measurement tools.
This control reduces the chances of bias.
• Up-to-Date Information: Primary data reflects current
conditions and behaviours since it is collected in real time. This
makes it particularly valuable for studies that require fresh
insights.
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 Pros of Primary Data

• Confidentiality: Since the data is gathered firsthand,

researchers can ensure that sensitive information is kept
confidential and used ethically.
• Customization: Data collection methods can be customized
to suit the research design, allowing for qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed-method approaches.

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 Cons of Primary Data
• Time-Consuming: Collecting primary data can be very time-
consuming. Designing the research instruments, conducting
fieldwork, and processing data often require significant time
and effort.
• High Cost: Gathering original data often involves expenses
such as travel, hiring personnel, purchasing materials, and
participant incentives. As a result, collecting primary data tends
to be more expensive than relying on pre-existing sources.
• Complexity: Designing a proper data collection method
requires expertise. Poorly designed instruments can lead to
unreliable or invalid data.
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 Cons of Primary Data
• Limited Scope: Since primary data collection is usually done
on a smaller scale due to resource constraints, its
generalizability might be limited compared to extensive
secondary databases.
• Access Issues: Sometimes, gaining access to certain
populations or information for primary data collection can be
difficult or restricted.

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 Pros of Secondary Data
• Cost-Effective: One of the main advantages of secondary
data is that it is much cheaper to obtain. Researchers can save
on time and money by using data that has already been
collected.
• Time-Saving: Using secondary data allows researchers to
bypass the data collection phase, accelerating the
research process.
• Large Scope and Coverage: Many secondary data sources,
such as national censuses or global datasets, cover wide
populations over long periods, allowing for comprehensive
analysis.
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 Pros of Secondary Data
• Accessibility: Secondary data is often publicly available or
accessible through libraries, online databases, and
government agencies.
• Historical Analysis: Researchers can analyze trends over
time by using historical secondary data, which is impossible
with only primary data collected at one point in time.

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 Cons of Secondary Data
• Relevance Issues: Because secondary data was gathered for
another purpose, it might not fully match the current research
objectives. This lack of specificity can limit its usefulness.
• Data Quality Concerns: The accuracy and reliability of
secondary data depend on the original data collector.
Researchers may not have control over the data quality or
collection methods.
• Outdated Information: Some secondary data sources may
be outdated, especially if they are not updated regularly. Such
limitations could undermine the credibility and relevance of
the research findings.
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 Cons of Secondary Data
• Lack of Control: Researchers cannot influence how
secondary data was gathered, which may introduce biases or
errors unknown to them.
• Data Accessibility and Usage Restrictions: Some secondary
data may have copyright or privacy restrictions, limiting how
it can be used or shared.

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 When to Use Primary Data vs. Secondary Data

• The decision to use primary data or secondary data depends on

several factors, including research goals, available resources,
time constraints, and the nature of the study.
• If the research requires specific, detailed, and up-to-date
information that cannot be found elsewhere, primary data
collection is preferred.
• If the research budget is limited, or if historical or broad
datasets are needed, secondary data can be a more practical
choice.
• In many cases, researchers combine both primary data and
secondary data to maximize the strengths of each and
compensate for their weaknesses.
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 Examples of Primary Data and Secondary Data

Examples of primary data include conducting a survey on

customer satisfaction, performing lab experiments, or observing
animal behavior in the wild.
Examples of secondary data include using census reports,
analyzing company annual reports, or referring to scientific
articles published in journals.
Both primary data and secondary data play vital roles in
research, each with its own set of advantages and
disadvantages. While primary data offers specificity, control,
and current information, it comes at the cost of time and
resources. Alternatively, secondary data offers a budget-friendly
and accessible option, but may lack relevance and control.
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 Where primary data is used: Exploring diverse
applications
• Market research and consumer behavior
Businesses rely heavily on primary data to understand market trends and
consumer behavior. Through surveys, focus groups, and product testing,
companies gather data that inform product development, marketing strategies,
and competitive positioning.
• Health care studies and interventions
In health care, primary data is important to understanding patient outcomes
and public health initiatives. Clinical trials, patient surveys, and
epidemiological studies collect data on treatment efficacy, patient satisfaction,
and disease prevalence.
This information guides patient care practices, health policy, and funding
allocations for research and development.
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 Where primary data is used: Exploring diverse
applications

• Social sciences and policy making

The social sciences use primary data to analyze societal issues and
inform policy. Interviews, observations, and social experiments provide
insights into human behavior, social interactions, and cultural patterns.
Policymakers use these data to design and implement programs that
address social challenges such as poverty, education, and urban
development.

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 When is secondary data useful to research?

• Historical and comparative studies

Secondary data is a goldmine for researchers conducting
historical research or comparative studies. It provides a vast
array of data points collected over time, allowing researchers
to identify trends, patterns, and changes.
Historical documents, previous studies, and statistical records
serve as critical resources for understanding the evolution of
societies, economies, and political landscapes.

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 When is secondary data useful to research?

• Expanding the scope of current research

Secondary data can significantly broaden the scope of a study.
By integrating existing datasets, researchers can enhance the
depth and breadth of their analysis.
For instance, using national census data can add demographic
context to a primary study on consumer behavior, thereby
enriching the findings with socio-economic dimensions.

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 When is secondary data useful to research?

• Preliminary research and hypothesis generation

In the early stages of research, secondary data is invaluable for
formulating hypotheses and guiding the direction of the study.
Reviewing existing literature and data can reveal gaps in
knowledge, inspire new research questions, and
suggest potential methodologies.
It also helps in developing a theoretical framework, which is
essential for any research project.

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 When is secondary data useful to research?

• Cost-effective analysis
Secondary data is often available at no or low cost, making it
an economical option for researchers. Accessing databases,
academic journals, and government reports can provide a
wealth of information without the need for new data collection.
This can be particularly beneficial for independent researchers,
non-profit organizations, and small businesses for whom
extensive primary data collection is not feasible.

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 When is secondary data useful to research?

• Triangulation and validation

Secondary data can be used to validate findings from primary
data collection. This process, known as triangulation, enhances
the credibility of the research.
By comparing new data with existing data, researchers can
confirm the reliability and accuracy of their results,
strengthening the overall conclusions of the study.

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 Tips for collecting reliable primary and secondary data

• Ensuring reliability in primary data collection

Pilot studies are a cornerstone of reliable
primary data collection, allowing researchers to refine their
instruments and methods before embarking on full-scale data
gathering. Consistency is also key; standardization of protocols
across different data collection points can help in minimizing
the variability that may affect the data’s reliability.
Moreover, investing in comprehensive training for data
collectors can ensure that the data collection procedures are
followed accurately and uniformly.
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 Tips for collecting reliable primary and secondary data

• Validating secondary data sources

When it comes to secondary data, the emphasis shifts to the
evaluation of sources. The credibility of the data can be assessed
by considering the reputation of the publication or the
organization releasing the data.
Cross-verification with additional authoritative sources also acts
as a reinforcement to the accuracy of the secondary data. Since
the timeliness of information can significantly influence its
applicability, prioritizing the most recent data available is
important, although historical context should not be neglected as
it provides valuable perspective on trends and changes.
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 Methods of Collecting Primary Data

• Questionnaires & Schedule method of data

collection :
The questionnaires are the fundamental instrument for
gathering information in review research. Fundamentally,
it is a bunch of standardized questions, frequently called
items, which follow a decent plan to gather individual
information around at least one explicit theme.
The schedule is a formalized arrangement of inquiries,
proclamations, statements, and spaces for replies given to
the enumerators who pose inquiries to the respondents
and note down the responses.
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 What is a questionnaire?
• A questionnaire is a written instrument designed to gather
data from individuals or groups. It’s made up of a series of
questions, which can be open-ended, closed-ended, or a mix
of both. The purpose of these questions is to obtain responses
that provide valuable insights into the research topic at hand.
Questionnaires are typically administered to a target
population, with responses then analyzed to identify patterns,
trends, and correlations that can help answer the research
question.

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 What is a questionnaire?
• The use of questionnaires in research can be traced back to
the early 20th century, and they have evolved over time to
become one of the most effective methods for
collecting primary data. Their structured nature allows
researchers to collect large amounts of data in a consistent
and organized manner, making them particularly useful for
surveys and studies that require a broad sample size.
• A questionnaire is a formal tool used to gather data
systematically, ensuring consistency and reliability in the
responses.
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Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire
Following are the two ways of collecting data through questionnaires:
• Mailing Method
• Enumerator Method
Mailing Method:
In this method of data collection, the investigator prepares a
questionnaire related to the investigation and mailed it to different
individuals with a request to fill it out and send it back. In the
questionnaire, the investigator provides the respondents with a blank
space to write their answers. Also, the investigators usually enclose a
self-addressed stamped envelope with the questionnaire for returning it
by post.
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Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire
Besides, the respondents are given assurance regarding the
secrecy of the information provided by them for the study.
Mailing Method is normally adopted by research workers and
other official and non-official agencies.
Suitability of Mailing Method
Mailing Method is suitable in the following cases:
• When the field of investigation is very large.
• When the respondents are educated and are likely to cooperate
with the investigators and their investigation.
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Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire
Merits of Mailing Method
Various advantages of the Mailing Method are as follows:
1. Wide Coverage: This strategy is valuable when the field of examination
is large, and the respondents are dispersed over a wide region. Besides,
this is the only method of collecting data that reaches remote areas.
2. No Role of Questioner: It is liberated from the inclination of the
questioner.
3. Time: In this method, respondents have sufficient time to give the
required information.
4. Free from Bias: The respondents interpret the questions in their own
way; therefore, this method is free from any personal bias of the
investigator.
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Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire
5. Direct Involvement: There is uniformity in the data collected
because informants are directly involved in this.
6. Economical: The Mailing Method is economical as it requires
less time, effort, and money.
7. Maintains Secrecy: It is suitable when the investigation
involved sensitive questions as it maintains the secrecy of the
respondent.
Demerits of Mailing Method
Some of the disadvantages of the Mailing Method are as follows:
1. Educated Informants: It cannot be utilized for unskilled or
uninformed respondents.
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Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire
2. Non-reaction: The pace of non-reaction is high as
compared with other techniques.
3. Uncertainty: The command over the survey might be lost
whenever it is sent.
4. Lack of Clarity: It is challenging to confirm the precision
of the responses given.
5. Feasibility: To check the feasibility of the data collected, a
pilot study is essential in this technique.
6. Chances of Misinterpretation: Every respondent interprets
the question in their own way, which may not be the same
as the sense in which the investigator is asking the question,
resulting in vague and ambiguous answers.
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Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire
Precautions for Mailing Method
The investigator should keep the following points in mind while using the
mailing method:
1. The questionnaire should be simple, attractive, and short.
2. The questions under this method should not hurt the sentiments and
feelings of the informants, and should not be very personal.
3. The questions should be formed with a proper system, sequence, and
planning.
4. The investigator should clearly define the object of enquiry.
5. The investigator should make effort to get the information as early as
possible.
6. There should be a self-addressed
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questionnaire.
Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire
Enumerator Method:
Under the Enumerator Method, the enumerator takes the
questionnaire and personally visits the informants, asks questions
from them, and notes down their replies. An enumerator is a trained
person who collects information and performs all the field work
related to the collection of data. The enumerator also helps the
respondents in understanding the true interpretation of the questions
and fills up the schedules themselves to avoid ambiguous and vague
replies. Besides, to get reliable information from the respondents, an
enumerator should be we-trained, tactful, hard-working, and
unbiased. This method is generally used by semi-government
organisations, governments, research institutions, etc. The
questionnaire filled by the investigator is known as a Schedule.
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Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire

Suitability of Enumerator Method

The Enumerator Method is suitable in the following cases:
• When adequate finance and trained enumerators are available
to cover a wide field.
• When the respondents are not literate.

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Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire
Merits of Enumerator Method
Various advantages of Enumerators Method are as follows:
1. Uneducated Persons: As the enumerator, himself fills the
questionnaire, this method can be used in those cases where the
target population is not proficient.
2. Assistance: Respondents can address perplexing and troublesome
inquiries with the assistance of the enumerators.
3. Less Chance of Bias: It leaves little scope for the poll to be biased.
4. Reliability: The data collected is more reliable and correct.
5. Responsiveness: There is less chance of non-response as the
enumerator personally visits people.
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Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire
Demerits of Enumerator Method
Some of the disadvantages of Enumerators Method are as
follows:
1. Costly: It is a costly method and requires a lot of money.
2. Time-Consuming: It is a very time-consuming process as the
enumerator has to personally go and visit the respondents.
3. Skilled Personnel: The outcome of this technique relies upon
the accessibility of prepared and skilled enumerators.
4. Personal Bias: The inclination of enumerators could impact
the result of data.
5. Affordability: It can only be afforded by big organisations.
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Ways of Collecting Data Through Questionnaire
Precautions of Enumerator Method
The investigator should keep the following points in mind while using
enumerator method:
1. It is necessary for the enumerator to be the person of high integrity
and should be properly trained for using statistical tools.
2. The enumerator should be tactful, polite, laborious, and honest to the
work assigned to him.
3. It is also important that the informant is properly educated regarding
the objective of investigation.
4. The enumerator's work should be timely evaluated.
5. The questions of a schedule should be simple, clear, and small in
length.
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 Importance of questionnaires in research
1. Standardized data collection;
2. Efficient data gathering;
3. Ability to reach a diverse audience;
4. Anonymity and honesty in responses;
5. Quantitative and qualitative data;
6. Flexibility in Research Design.

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 Types of Questionnaires
1. Based on Format
•Structured Questionnaires
•Unstructured Questionnaires
2. Based on Purpose
•Exploratory Questionnaires
•Descriptive Questionnaires
•Explanatory Questionnaires
3. Based on Administration Method
•Self-Administered Questionnaires
•Interviewer-Administered Questionnaires
•Mail Questionnaires
•Online Questionnaires
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 Types of questions in a questionnaire

1. Closed-ended questions
•Dichotomous Questions :Yes/No, True/False questions
•Multiple-choice questions
•Rating scale questions
•Ranking questions
2. Open-ended questions
3. Mixed questions
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 Types of questions in a questionnaire
• Pros and cons of closed-ended questions
Well-designed closed-ended questions are easy to understand
and can be answered quickly. However, you might still miss
important answers that are relevant to respondents. An
incomplete set of response items may force some respondents
to pick the closest alternative to their true answer. These types
of questions may also miss out on valuable detail.
To solve these problems, you can make questions partially
closed-ended, and include an open-ended option where
respondents can fill in their own answer.
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 Types of questions in a questionnaire
• Open-ended questions
Open-ended, or long-form, questions allow respondents to give
answers in their own words. Because there are no restrictions on their
choices, respondents can answer in ways that researchers may not have
otherwise considered. For example, respondents may want to answer
“multiracial” for the question on race rather than selecting from a
restricted list.
Open-ended questions have a few downsides.
They require more time and effort from respondents, which may deter
them from completing the questionnaire.
For researchers, understanding and summarizing responses to these
questions can take a lot of time and resources. You’ll need to develop a
systematic coding scheme to categorize answers, and you may also
need to involve other researchers
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 Designing a good questionnaire
•Keep it clear and concise
•Ensure the questions are relevant
•Use a logical flow
•Test your questionnaire
Key Features of a Questionnaire:
•Structured Format
•Consistency
•Scalability
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 Designing a good questionnaire
•Question wording
•Use clear language
•Use balanced framing
•Avoid leading questions
•Keep your questions focused
•Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.
•Question order
•Logical flow
•Randomization
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 Advantages and Limitations of Using Questionnaires

Advantages
•Cost-Effective
•Efficient Data Collection
•Standardization
•Anonymity
Limitations
•Lack of Flexibility
•Response Bias
•Low Response Rate
•Misinterpretation of Questions
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 Step-by-step guide to design Questionnaire

Step 1: Define your goals and objectives

Step 2: Use questions that are suitable for your sample
Step 3: Decide on your questionnaire length and question order
Step 4: Pretest your questionnaire

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 Interview Method
• Interview is one of the popular methods of research data
collection. The term interview can be dissected into two
terms as, ‘inter’ and ‘view’. The essence of interview is that
one mind tries to read the other. The interviewer tries to
assess the interviewed in terms of the aspects studied or
issues analyzed.

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 Purpose and Importance of Interview

The main purpose of interview as a tool of data collection, is to

gather data extensively and intensively. As Pauline.V Young
pointed out that the objectives of the interview may be
exchange of ideas and experiences, eliciting of information
pertaining to a very wide range of data in which the
interviewee may wish to rehearse his past, define his present
and canvass his future possibilities. Thus, in brief, the
objectives of interviewee are two fold:
• To exchange ideas and experience and
• To elicit information.
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 The importance of interview
• It is the method best suited for the assessment of personal
qualities.
• It has definite values for diagnosis of emotional problems and
for therapeutic treatments.
• It is one of the major bases upon which counseling
procedures are carried out.
• It provides information to supplement other methods of
collecting data.
• It may be used, in addition to observation, to verify
information obtained through correspondence methods.
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 Types of Interviews used in Research

• Structured-Direct Interview
• Unstructured-Direct Interview
• Structured-indirect interview
• Semi structured interview
• Unstructured-indirect interview
• Focus-Group Interviews
• Focused Interviews
• The Third-Person Technique
• The Depth Interview
• The Personal Interview
• The Telephone Interview
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 Advantages and disadvantages of interviews

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Advantages and disadvantages of interviews

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Advantages and disadvantages of Interviews

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 Advantages and disadvantages of Interviews

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 Type of Questions

• Experience and behavior;

• Opinion and values questions;
• Feeling questions;
• Knowledge questions;
• Sensory questions; ;
• Background/Demographic Questions;
• Temporality.

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 Question Sequence

Having a list of good questions or good question areas is not

enough to make a good interview guide. You will want to pay
attention to the order in which you ask your questions. Even
though any one respondent can derail this order (perhaps by
jumping to answer a question you haven’t yet asked), a good
advance plan is always helpful. When thinking about sequence,
remember that your goal is to get your respondent to open up to
you and to say things that might surprise you. To establish
rapport, it is best to start with nonthreatening questions. It is best
to move from very general questions to more particular
questions only later in the interview.
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 Creating an Interview Guide

Your interview guide is the instrument used to bridge your

research question(s) and what the people you are interviewing
want to tell you. Unlike a standardized questionnaire, the
questions actually asked do not need to be exactly what you have
written down in your guide. The guide is meant to create space for
those you are interviewing to talk about the phenomenon of
interest, but sometimes you are not even sure what that
phenomenon is until you start asking questions. A priority in
creating an interview guide is to ensure it offers space. One of the
worst mistakes is to create questions that are so specific that the
person answering them will not stray. A good interview guide
invites respondents to talk about what is important to them, not
feel like they are performing or being evaluated by you.
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 Conditions to adopt Interview Method
• You wish to gather very detailed information
• You anticipate wanting to ask respondents follow-up
questions based on their responses
• You plan to ask questions that require lengthy explanation
• You are studying a complex or potentially confusing topic to
respondents
• You are studying processes, such as how people make
decisions
• Interviews are also useful when your topic is rather complex,
requires lengthy explanation, or needs a dialogue between
two people to thoroughly investigate.
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 Conducting the Interview
• Introduce yourself and reintroduce the study
• Provide consent form and ask them to sign and retain/return copy
• Ask if they have any questions about the study before we begin
• Ask if you can begin recording
• Ask questions (from interview guide)
• Turn off the recording device
• Ask if they are willing to fill out your demographic questionnaire
• Collect questionnaire and, without looking at the answers, place in
same folder as signed consent form
• Thank them and depart
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 Observation Method
Observation means the careful and systematic watching of
facts as they occur in course of nature. In the strict
sense, observation implies more use of the eyes and the ears
than the mouth.
Observation involves three processes, i.e. (i) sensation (ii)
attention (iii) perception. Sensation is gained through the sense
organs which depend upon the physical alertness of the
observer. The sense organs are receptive to stimuli and get
attracted leading to the first stage in observation. Then comes
attention or concentration which is largely a matter of
commitment and will-power. Adequate training and experience
can make it almost a matter of habit. The third is perception
which comprises the interpretation of sensory reports.
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 Observation Method
Sensation merely reports the facts as observed but perception
enables the mind to recognize the facts. Through this process,
observation serves the purpose of (i) studying collective
behavior and complex social situations; (ii) following up of
individual units composing the situations; (iii) understanding
the whole and the parts in their interrelation; (iv) getting the
out of the way details of the situation. .
This approach is particularly useful in social sciences,
anthropology, psychology, and marketing, providing insights
into complex phenomena in authentic contexts.

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 Key Characteristics of Observation Method
• Non-Intrusive: Observes participants without altering their
environment.
• Qualitative Focus: Emphasizes detailed, descriptive data, though
quantitative methods can also be used.
• Natural Settings: Conducted in real-world locations where
participants normally exist, such as schools, workplaces, or
homes.
• Flexible: Allows researchers to adapt observations based on
unexpected events or behaviors.
Example: Observing customer behavior in a retail store to
understand purchasing decisions and engagement with product
displays.
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 Key Characteristics of Observation Method
• Visual Perception: Within a specific context, observation
hinges on the ability to visually perceive rather than relying
on auditory or verbal cues. Experienced individuals prioritize
firsthand visual confirmation over hearsay, placing trust in
direct visual evidence as the most dependable form of
observation.
• Scientific Inquiry: Scientists and researchers leverage
observations rooted in scientific principles to pursue various
goals. They meticulously document these observations with
the aim of achieving specific objectives, such as uncovering
new phenomena or validating hypotheses.
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Key Characteristics of Observation Method
• Methodical Approach: The effectiveness of an observation
within a procedure lies in its precise and well-thought-out
execution. Random or careless observations decrease the
likelihood of replication. Thus, observations must be
conducted in a methodical and systematic manner to gain a
comprehensive understanding of the task at hand.
• Documentation: It’s vital to recall the tasks undertaken and
their outcomes, yet memory can be fallible over time. Hence,
maintaining records of these activities is widely
acknowledged as essential. While traditional methods involve
writing down impressions, modern techniques often employ
tape recorders or video cameras for accurate documentation.
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 Key Characteristics of Observation Method
• Sensory Engagement: Observation heavily relies on the
sensory organs. Researchers and investigators depend on
their senses of sight and hearing to perceive information,
which they later analyze thoroughly.
• Standardized Methods: Observations should adhere to
standardized research methodologies to ensure precision and
accuracy in execution.
• Primary Research: Observation serves as a foundational
scientific technique, vital for gathering firsthand, credible
data through direct examination of a given situation.
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 Types of Observation Method

1. Casual and Scientific Observation

An observation may be either casual or scientific. Casual
observation occurs without any previous preparation. It is a
matter of chance that the right thing is observed at the right
time and in the right place. Scientific observation, on the other
hand, is carried out with due preparations and is done with the
help of right tools of measurement experienced enumerators
and under able guidance. Scientific observations yield
thorough and accurate data.

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 Types of Observation Method

2. Simple and Systematic Observation

An observation may be either Simple or Systematic. Simple Observation. is
found in almost all research studies, at least in the initial stages of
exploration. Its practice is not very standardized. It befits the heuristic
nature of exploratory research. Participant studies are also usually classified
as simple observation because participant roles do not permit systematic
observation. Systematic observation, on the other hand, employs
standardized procedures, training of observers, schedules for recording
and other devices to control the observer sometimes even the subject.
Clearly some systematization is valuable in research observation, but the
situation often limits what can be done. A systematic observation is a
scientific observation too.
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 Types of Observation Method

3. Subjective and Objective Observations

An observation may be either Subjective or Objective. In every act
of observation there are two components namely, the object (or
what is observed) and the subject (or the observer). It may be that
some times one may have to observe one’s own immediate
experience. That is called Subjective Observation or Self-
Observation or introspection. Prejudices and biases are generally
parts of subjective observation. Many data of psychological
interest are gathered by the method of subjective observation. To
avoid such prejudices, the observer takes stock of him and
discovers what prejudices and biases will prevent impartial study
and disinterested points of view.
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 Types of Observation Method

Persistent self-observation and criticism by others may

ultimately overcome prejudice and biases. Such introspection
may have another social value i.e., it sensitizes the observer
to the problems of others and creates sympathetic insight
which facilitates, at least to some degree, the understanding of
people’s behavior in similar circumstances and similar
cultural contexts. The net result is impartial subjective
observation. When the observer is an entity apart from the
thing observed, the observation of this type is objective .

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 Types of Observation Method

4. Factual and Inferential Observation

Observation may be either factual or inferential In factual
observation things or phenomena observed with naked eyes
are reported. In inferential observation behavior or
psychological aspects are observed.
5. Direct and Indirect Observation
Observation may be either Direct or Indirect. In the case of
direct Observation the observer is physically present and
personally monitors what takes place.

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 Types of Observation Method

This approach is very flexible of events and behavior as they

occur. He is also free to shift places, change the focus of the
observation, on concentrate unexpected events if they should occur.
In indirect observation recording is done by mechanical,
photographic or electronic means. For example a special motion
picture camera which takes one frame every second is mounted in a
department of a large store to study customer and employee
movement.
6. Behavioral and Non-behavioral Observations
Observation may be either behavioral or non-behavioral. As
pointed earlier the concept of observation involves not only
watching but also listening and reading.
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 Types of Observation Method

Observation includes the full range of monitoring behavioral

and non-behavioral activities and conditions. Non-verbal
analysis, linguistic analysis, extra-linguistic analysis and
spatial analysis are the four major categories of behavioral
observational study of persons. Record analysis, physical
condition analysis and physical process analysis are the three
major categories of non-behavioral study of persons. Non-
verbal behavioral observation includes observation of body
movement, motor expressions and even exchanged glances.
Body movement, is an indicator of interest or boredom, anger
or pleasure in a certain environment.
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 Types of Observation Method

Motor expressions such as facial movements can be observed

as a sign of emotional studies. For instance, eye-blink rates
are studied as indicators of interest in advertising messages.
Finally, exchanged glances might be of interest in studies of
interpersonal behavior. Linguistic behavior is a second
frequently used from of behavioral observation. One simple
type, familiar to most students, is the tally of ‘ahs’ (or other
annoying words or sounds) that a professor emits during a
class.

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 Controlled and Uncontrolled Observation
Controlled observation is widely appreciated, benefiting both
controlled environments like laboratories and real-world
settings. It involves standardizing practices in fields like
psychology and sociology. Controlled observation utilizes
distinct techniques to observe while aiming for meticulous
control over both external factors and inherent variables.
Observations conducted in natural environments are
commonly known as uncontrolled observations. The main aim
of this approach is to portray life spontaneously, without
manipulating any external or internal variables.

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 Guide to Conducting Observation Method
Step 1: Define the Research Objective
Step 2: Choose the Observation Type
Step 2: Choose the Observation Type
Step 4: Prepare Data Collection Tools
Step 5: Conduct the Observation
Step 6: Record Observations and Data
Step 7: Analyze Data
Step 8: Interpret Findings

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 Advantages of Observation Method
1. Simplest Method: Observation emerges as one of the most
common and simple methods for collecting data. It requires
minimal technical knowledge, rendering it open to nearly
everyone. Although scientific observation in controlled
settings may require some technical know-how, it still appears
relatively straightforward compared to other techniques.
People regularly partake in observation as a natural part of
their daily lives, and with basic guidance, anyone can improve
their observational abilities to gain a deeper understanding of
their surroundings.

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 Advantages of Observation Method

2. Useful for Framing Hypothesis: Thoroughly observing a

subject lays the foundation for crafting hypotheses. By
consistently monitoring a phenomenon, researchers immerse
themselves in its intricacies, understanding its patterns,
behaviours, obstacles, viewpoints, and array of actions. These
keen observations are invaluable in shaping hypotheses.
Hence, adept observational abilities are essential for
researchers to proficiently conceive hypotheses.

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 Advantages of Observation Method
3. Greater Accuracy: Unlike methods such as interviews and
questionnaires that depend on information provided by
participants, observation provides researchers with a direct
way to evaluate accuracy. While interviews and questionnaires
are indirect and don’t allow investigators to verify the
accuracy of data, observation enables direct examination of
behaviour. Observers can utilize different techniques to assess
behaviour’s reliability, leading to data often considered more
trustworthy than that obtained through interviews or
questionnaires.

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 Advantages of Observation Method
4. An Universal Method: Observation is a widely utilized
practice found in numerous scientific fields, including both
physical and social sciences. Its broad usage highlights its
versatility and universal relevance. Due to its widespread
acceptance, observation is commonly adopted and employed
as a fundamental methodological approach.
5. Only Appropriate Tool for Certain Cases: Observation
holds significant importance in examining phenomena where
verbal interaction is impractical for a variety of reasons, such
as infancy or the characteristics of the subject, such as animals.

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 Advantages of Observation Method
It becomes particularly crucial when studying infants who are
unable to understand or express responses to researchers’
questions. Similarly, observation becomes the predominant
approach in researching animals. Moreover, observation is
valuable in scenarios involving individuals with disabilities
such as deafness or muteness, profound abnormalities, mental
health issues, uncooperative behavior, extreme timidity, or
language obstacles. In these instances, observation emerges as
the most appropriate means of collecting data.

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 Advantages of Observation Method
6. Independent of People’s Willingness to Report: The
effectiveness of observation isn’t solely reliant on people being
open to sharing personal information. Numerous participants
might hesitate to disclose personal details to someone they
don’t know, might be pressed for time, or might lack the
expertise to offer relevant insights to researchers. Although
observation doesn’t completely eliminate these obstacles, it
generally requires less direct involvement and cooperation
from participants. Additionally, observation can be conducted
without the subjects realizing they’re being observed.

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 Limitations of Observation Method
1. Somethings may not be Open to Observation: Many
personal behaviours and private actions elude direct
observation. For instance, couples often opt not to allow
researchers to witness their intimate moments. In most
instances, individuals are hesitant to permit outsiders to
scrutinize their personal activities.
2. Not all Occurrences Open to Observation can be
Observed: These challenges arise from the inherent
unpredictability of various social phenomena. Researchers face
difficulty in determining when and where these events will
occur due to their unpredictable nature.
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 Limitations of Observation Method
Some events may occur without anyone observing them, while
others may not happen despite continuous observation. For
example, conflicts between individuals or groups may arise
suddenly, making it difficult for anyone involved to anticipate their
timing accurately.
3. Not everything Lend itself to Observational Study: Numerous
social phenomena possess inherent abstraction. Consider, for
example, the intricate interplay of love, affection, and parental
sentiments toward offspring. These nuanced facets of human
behaviour elude facile scrutiny and resist conventional
measurement techniques. Researchers frequently turn to alternative
methodologies like case studies and interviews to explore the
complexities
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inherent in these DLIS,
phenomena.
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 Limitations of Observation Method
4. Lack of Reliability: Because social phenomena are
inherently complex and cannot be easily tested in controlled
laboratory settings, the trustworthiness of conclusions derived
from observational techniques is frequently doubted. The
subjective nature of these phenomena and the potential for bias
in the observer add layers of complication to the task of
making reliable generalizations based on observation. P. V.
Young highlights the absence of precise instruments in
observational methods, which hinders the verification of the
observed phenomena’s accuracy.
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 Limitations of Observation Method

5. Faulty Perception: The art of observation is a complex

endeavour, filled with subtleties and intricacies. It resides in a
realm of uncertainty, where perceptions may diverge from
reality. Different people can interpret the same occurrence or
phenomenon differently; some may derive significance and
practicality from it, while others may perceive nothing
noteworthy. Engaging in scientific observation requires a
profound grasp of the technical intricacies inherent in the
principles and methodologies of observation, a skill possessed
only by those deeply familiar with them.
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 Limitations of Observation Method
6. Personal Bias of the Observer: The presence of personal
biases, unique viewpoints, and the inclination to interpret
situations from particular angles often hinder the capacity to
form precise generalizations. Individuals may hold subjective
moral beliefs or harbor diverse assumptions about occurrences,
thus undermining the impartiality crucial for social research.
7. Slow Investigation: P.V. Young highlighted that observation
requires careful attention. Rushing through it won’t yield valid
results; thorough investigation takes time. Trying to speed up
the process may dampen the enthusiasm of both the observer
and the subject, disrupting the flow of observation.
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 Limitations of Observation Method
8. Expensive: Performing observations requires significant
financial resources, a substantial commitment of time, and
considerable effort. It necessitates travel, prolonged stays at
observation locations, and the procurement of specialized
equipment. Consequently, observation is frequently seen as one
of the most financially intensive methods for gathering data.
9. Inadequate Method: P. V. Young emphasizes the limitation
of relying solely on observation for gaining thorough insights.
Therefore, there is a growing advocacy for integrating
additional methods alongside observation to achieve more
comprehensive understanding.
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 Limitations of Observation Method

10. Difficulty in Checking Validity: Confirming the precision

of observations presents ongoing difficulties. Many
phenomena witnessed resist clear delineation, making it hard
to form dependable generalizations. Moreover, the observer’s
proficiency, or its absence, can greatly undermine both the
authenticity and consistency of observations.

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 Tips for Effective Observation Method
• Stay Objective: Minimize personal biases by focusing on
factual details rather than subjective interpretations.
• Be Consistent: For structured observations, adhere to the
checklist or framework to ensure reliable data.
• Record Contextual Information: Document details about
the setting, time, and environmental factors that may
influence observations.
• Use Multiple Observers if Possible: Involving multiple
researchers can increase reliability and reduce bias.
• Practice Ethical Observation: Ensure participants’ privacy
and confidentiality, especially in settings where informed
consent is required.
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 Ethical Considerations in Observation Method

Ethical considerations are essential, particularly when

observing people in sensitive environments or private settings.
Researchers should:
• Obtain Consent: Seek permission to observe in private
settings, and inform participants about the study when
appropriate.
• Ensure Confidentiality: Avoid identifying specific
individuals in reports to maintain privacy.
• Minimize Harm: Avoid interfering with the participants’
natural behaviors or environment.
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 Other Methods of Collecting Primary Data
Experiments: The experiment method involves manipulating one or
more variables to determine their effect on another variable, within a
controlled environment. Researchers create two groups (control and
experimental), apply the treatment or variable to the experimental
group, and compare the outcomes between the groups.
• Advantage: Allows for the establishment of cause-and-effect
relationships with high precision.
• Disadvantage: Experiments can be artificial, limiting the ability to
generalize findings to real-world settings, and they can be resource-
intensive.
• Suitable Use Case: Testing the efficacy of a new drug, assessing the
impact of a new teaching method, or evaluating the effect of a
marketing campaign.
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 Other Methods of Collecting Primary Data
Focus Group: The focus group method involves gathering a small
group of people to discuss a specific topic or product, facilitated by a
moderator. A group of 6-12 participants engages in a guided
discussion led by a moderator who asks open-ended questions to
elicit opinions, attitudes, and perceptions.
• Advantage: Provides in-depth insights and diverse perspectives
through interactive discussions, revealing the reasoning behind
participants' thoughts and feelings.
• Disadvantage: Results can be influenced by dominant participants
or groupthink, and the findings are not easily generalizable due to
the small, non-representative sample size.
• Suitable Use Case: Exploring customer attitudes towards a new
product, gathering feedback on a marketing campaign, or
understanding public opinion DLIS,
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social issues. 97
 Other Methods of Collecting Primary Data

Information from Local Sources or Correspondents: In this

method, for the collection of data, the investigator appoints
correspondents or local persons at various places, which are
then furnished by them to the investigator. With the help of
correspondents and local persons, the investigators can cover a
wide area.

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 Methods of Collecting Secondary Data
1. Published Sources
• Government Publications: Government publishes different
documents which consists of different varieties of
information or data published by the Ministries, Central and
State Governments in India as their routine activity. As the
government publishes these Statistics, they are fairly reliable
to the investigator. Examples of Government publications on
Statistics are the Annual Survey of Industries, Statistical
Abstract of India, etc.

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 Methods of Collecting Secondary Data

• Semi-Government Publications: Different Semi-

Government bodies also publish data related to health,
education, deaths and births. These kinds of data are also
reliable and used by different informants. Some examples of
semi-government bodies are Metropolitan Councils,
Municipalities, etc.
• Publications of Trade Associations: Various big trade
associations collect and publish data from their research and
statistical divisions of different trading activities and their
aspects. For example, data published by Sugar Mills
Association regarding different sugar mills in India.
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 Methods of Collecting Secondary Data

• Journals and Papers: Different newspapers and magazines

provide a variety of statistical data in their writings, which
are used by different investigators for their studies.
• International Publications: Different international
organizations like IMF, UNO, ILO, World Bank, etc., publish
a variety of statistical information which are used as
secondary data.
• Publications of Research Institutions: Research institutions
and universities also publish their research activities and their
findings, which are used by different investigators as
secondary data. For example National Council of Applied
Economics, the Indian Statistical Institute, etc.
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 Methods of Collecting Secondary Data
2. Unpublished Sources
• Unpublished sources are another source of collecting
secondary data. The data in unpublished sources is collected
by different government organizations and other
organizations. These organizations usually collect data for
their self-use and are not published anywhere. For
example, research work done by professors, professionals,
teachers and records maintained by business and
private enterprises.

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 Methods of Collecting Secondary Data

3. Online Sources
• Websites, blogs, and online articles.
• Publicly accessible data repositories.
• Social media platforms for sentiment and behavior analysis.

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 Example

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 Example
The above table contains the production of rice in India in
different years. It can be seen that these values vary from one
year to another. Therefore, they are known as variable. A
variable is a quantity or attribute, the value of which varies
from one investigation to another. In general, the variables are
represented by letters such as X, Y, or Z. In the above example,
years are represented by variable X, and the production of rice
is represented by variable Y. The values of variable X and
variable Y are data from which an investigator and enumerator
collect information regarding the trends of rice production in
India.
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 Conclusion
Data collection is the backbone of any research or statistical
investigation, providing the necessary information to make
informed decisions, identify trends, and measure progress.
By understanding the various methods of data collection
researchers can choose the most suitable approach to gather
primary data that is current, relevant, and accurate. Similarly,
using secondary data from published and unpublished sources
like government reports, trade associations, and research
institutions can save time and resources while offering
valuable insights. Mastering these data collection techniques
ensures the reliability and validity of the research, ultimately
leading to sound and actionable conclusions.
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