INTRODUCTION

TO
ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
 INTRODUCTION

 AI is one of the newest disciplines, formally initiated in 1956 when the name was coined. However,
the study of intelligence is one of the oldest disciplines being approximately 2000 years old. The
advent of computers made it possible for the first time for people to test models they proposed for
learning, reasoning, perceiving, etc.

 Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial defines
"manmade," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-made thinking power."

 WHAT IS ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE? Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human

intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. Specific applications of AI include
expert systems, natural language processing, speech recognition and machine vision.
ACTING HUMANLY

 The first proposal for success in building a program and acts humanly was the Turing Test. To be
considered intelligent a program must be able to act sufficiently like a human to fool an interrogator.

 A human interrogates the program and another human via a terminal simultaneously. If after a
reasonable period, the interrogator cannot tell which is which, the program passes.

 To pass this test requires:

1. Natural language processing

2. Knowledge representation  Automated reasoning
3. Machine learning

 This test avoids physical contact and concentrates on "higher level" mental faculties. A total Turing
test would require the program to also do: Computer vision and Robotics
THINKING HUMANLY

 This requires "getting inside" of the human mind to see how it works and then comparing our
computer programs to this. This is what cognitive science attempts to do.

 Another way to do this is to observe a human problem solving and argue that one's programs go about
problem solving in a similar way.

 EXAMPLE:

1. GPS (General Problem Solver) was an early computer program that attempted to model human
thinking.

2. The developers were not so much interested in whether or not GPS solved problems correctly.

3. They were more interested in showing that it solved problems like people, going through the same
steps and taking around the same amount of time to perform those steps.
THINKING RATIONALLY

 Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify "thinking". His syllogisms provided patterns of
argument structure that always gave correct conclusions, giving correct premises.

 EXAMPLE: All computers use energy. Using energy always generates heat. Therefore, all
computers generate heat. This initiate the field of logic.

 Formal logic was developed in the late nineteenth century. This was the first step toward enabling
computer programs to reason logically. By 1965, programs existed that could, given enough time and
memory, take a description of the problem in logical notation and find the solution, if one existed.

 The logicist tradition in AI hopes to build on such programs to create intelligence.

 There are two main obstacles to this approach: First, it is difficult to make informal knowledge
precise enough to use the logicist approach particularly when there is uncertainty in the knowledge.
Second, there is a big difference between being able to solve a problem in principle and doing so in
practice.
FOUNDATIONS OF AI
Like any history, this one is forced to concentrate on a small number of people, events, and ideas and to ignore
others that also were important. We organize the history around a series of questions. We certainly would not wish to
give the impression that these questions are the only ones the disciplines address or that the disciplines have all been
working toward AI as their ultimate fruition.
1. PHILOSOPHY
 Can formal rules be used to draw valid conclusions?
 How does the mind arise from a physical brain?
 Where does knowledge come from?
 How does knowledge lead to action?

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), was the first to formulate a precise set of laws governing the rational part of the mind. He
developed an informal system of syllogisms for proper reasoning, which in principle allowed one to generate
conclusions mechanically, given initial premises.
Much later, Ramon Lull (d. 1315) had the idea that useful reasoning could actually be carried out by a mechanical
artifact. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) proposed that reasoning was like numerical computation that “we add and
subtract in our silent thoughts.”
MATHEMATICS:

 What are the formal rules to draw valid conclusions?

 What can be computed?

 How do we reason with uncertain information?

Philosophers staked out most of the important ideas of AI, but to move to a formal science requires a level of

mathematical formalism in three main areas: computation, logic and probability.

Mathematicians have proved that there exists an algorithm to prove any true statement in first-order logic.

However, if one adds the principle of induction required to capture the semantics of the natural numbers, then

this is no longer the case. Specifically, the incompleteness theorem showed that in any language expressive

enough to describe the properties of the natural numbers, there are true statements that are undecidable: their

truth cannot be established by any algorithm.

3 ECONOMICS
 How should we make decisions so as to maximize payoff?
 How should we do this when others may not go along?

 How should we do this when the payoff may be far in the future?

4 NEUROSCIENCE

How do brains process information?

 Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, particularly the brain. Although the exact way in which the brain
enables thought is one of the great mysteries of science, the fact that it does enable thought has been appreciated for

thousands of years because of the evidence that strong blows to the head can lead to mental incapacitation.
 It has also long been known that human brains are somehow different; in about 335 B.C. Aristotle wrote, “Of all the

animals, man has the largest brain in proportion to his size.”5 Still, it was not until the middle of the 18 th century that

the brain was widely recognized as the seat of consciousness. Before then, candidate locations included the heart and the

spleen.
The parts of a nerve cell or neuron. Each neuron consists of a cell body, or soma, that contains a cell nucleus.
Branching out from the cell body are a number of fibers called dendrites and a single long fiber called the axon. The
axon stretches out for a long distance, much longer than the scale in this diagram indicates.
Supercomputer Personal Computer Human Brain
Computational units 1C)1 CPUs, lO1 ~ transistors 4 CPUs, 10° transistors lO11 neurons
Storage units 1C)1 1 bits RAM lO11 bits RAM lO11 neurons
10ir’ bits disk 10l t bits disk lO1 1 synapses
Cycle time 10~9 sec 10~9 sec lO-3 sec
Operations/sec io 15
io1(1
IO 17

Memory updates/sec IO14 lO 10 IO14

5 PSYCHOLOGY

How do humans and animals think and act?

 The principle characteristic of cognitive psychology is that the brain processes and processes information.

The claim is that beliefs, goals, and reasoning steps can be useful components of a theory of human

behaviour. The knowledge-based agent has three key steps:

1. Stimulus is translated into an internal representation

2. The representation is manipulated by cognitive processes to derive new internal representations.

These are translated into actions.

6 COMPUTER ENGINEERING

 How can we build an efficient computer?

For artificial intelligence to succeed, we need two things: intelligence and an artifact. The

computer has been the artifact of choice. The modern digital electronic computer was

invented independently and almost simultaneously by scientists in three countries embattled

7. CONTROL THEORY AND CYBERNETICS
 How can artifacts operate under their own control?

Modern control theory, especially the branch known as stochastic optimal control, has as its goal the design of

systems that maximize an objective function over time. This roughly OBJECTIVE FUNCTION matches our view

of AI: designing systems that behave optimally. Why, then, are AI and control theory two different fields, despite

the close connections among their founders? The answer lies in the close coupling between the mathematical

techniques that were familiar to the participants and the corresponding sets of problems that were encompassed in

each world view.

8. LINGUISTICS

 Having a theory of how humans successfully process natural language is an Al-complete problem - if we

could solve this problem then we would have created a model of intelligence.
 Much of the early work in knowledge representation was done in support of programs that attempted natural

language understanding.
NEED FOR AI

The organizations which mean to have a serious edge over their adversaries are banking upon AI advancements to acquire this.

Take the case of the Autopilot highlight offered by Tesla in its vehicles. Tesla is utilizing Deep Learning Algorithms to

accomplish Autonomous driving. This was before, when there was only one element out of many, yet now it is characterizing the

brand.

2. ACCESSIBILITY

The establishment speed, availability, and sheer scale have enabled bolder computations to deal with progressively

exciting issues. Not solely is the gear faster, expanded by specific assortments of processors (e.g., GPUs), it is moreover

available looking like cloud organizations.

What used to run in explicit labs with access to super PCs would now pass on to the cloud at a lower cost. This has

democratized access to the significant hardware stages to run AI, enabling duplication of new organizations.
3. FEAR OF MISSING OUT

No typo, you read that right! Not simply us, organizations additionally feel the dread of passing

up a major opportunity. To stay competitive and not get tossed out of the market, they need to adjust

appropriately. This is done by putting resources into advances that would upset their enterprises.

Take the case of the financial part, where practically all the banks have put vigorously in chatbots with

the goal that they won’t pass up the following rush of interruption.

4. COST-EFFECTIVENESS

As with all other technologies, with time, AI is becoming more and more affordable. This has

made it feasible for a lot of organizations that couldn’t bear the cost of them in the past to use

these advances.

Organizations do not have that barrier of cost to implement AI.

5. FUTURE PROOF

One thing that we all need to comprehend is that future in AI is very safe .

Organizations can and ought to guarantee themselves to be future confirmation by actualizing AI advancements. On

the off chance that this is where the world is going, why not to head in that equivalent course and be versatile to that

change.
WHY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE?
Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that

what is the IMPORTANCE OF AI and why should we learn it.

1. With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-world problems very easily and
with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.

2. With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana, Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
3. With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment where survival of humans can
be at risk.

4. AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.
 NEED OF AI
1. COMPETITIVE EDGE
1. Organizations use AI to gain a serious advantage over their competitors.
2. For example, Tesla's Autopilot uses deep learning for autonomous driving.
3. This feature has evolved from one of many to a defining brand characteristic .

2. ACCESSIBILITY
4. Faster hardware and specialized processors (like GPUs) enable more complex AI.
5. AI is now accessible via cloud services, not just exclusive supercomputers.
6. This democratization allows new companies to access powerful AI tools at a lower cost.

3. FEAR OF MISSING OUT (FOMO)

7. Companies fear being left behind and thrown out of the market.
8. They invest in disruptive technologies to stay competitive.
9. For example, most banks have invested in chatbots to avoid missing the next wave of innovation.

4. COST-EFFECTIVENESS
10. AI technology is becoming more affordable over time.
11. The cost barrier for implementing AI has been removed.
12. Many organizations that couldn't afford AI in the past can now use it.

5. FUTURE PROOFING
13. The future of AI is considered very safe and certain.
14. Companies can ensure they are future-proof by implementing AI.
15. It is essential to be adaptable and move in the direction the world is going.
GOALS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. Build an intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
5. Proving a theorem
6. Playing chess
7. Plan some surgical operation
8. Driving a car in traffic
9. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behaviour, learn new things by itself,
demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.
Advantages of AI:

1. HIGH ACCURACY WITH LESS ERRORS : AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and high accuracy

as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.

2. HIGH-SPEED : AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because of that AI systems can

beat a chess champion in the Chess game.

3. HIGH RELIABILITY : AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action multiple times with high

accuracy.
4. USEFUL FOR RISKY AREAS : AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a bomb, exploring the

ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.

5. DIGITAL ASSISTANT : AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as AI technology is

currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the products as per customer requirement.

6. USEFUL AS A PUBLIC UTILITY : AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving car which can

make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security purpose, Natural language processing to

communicate with the human in human-language, etc.

 Disadvantages of AI:
Every technology has some disadvantages, and the same goes for Artificial intelligence. Following are the disadvantages of AI:

1. HIGH COST : The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires lots of maintenance to meet current

world requirements.

2. CAN’T THINK OUT OF THE BOX : Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they cannot work out of the box,

as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained, or programmed.

3. NO FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS : AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it does not have the feeling so it

cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and may sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.

4. INCREASE DEPENDENCY ON MACHINES : With the increment of technology, people are getting more dependent on

devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.

5. NO ORIGINAL CREATIVITY : As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but still AI machines cannot beat

this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative and imaginative .

 APPLICATIONS OF AI:
1. AI IN ASTRONOMY
• Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems.
• AI technology can be helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin, etc.

2. AI IN HEALTHCARE
• In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more advantageous for the healthcare industry and going to have a significant impact on this
industry.
• Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than humans.
• AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients are worsening so that medical help can reach to the patient before
hospitalization.

3. AI IN GAMING
• AI can be used for gaming purpose.
• The AI machines can play strategic games like chess, where the machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.

4. AI IN FINANCE
• AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other.
• The finance industry is implementing automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine learning into financial
processes.
5. AI IN DATA SECURITY
1. The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very rapidly in the digital world.
2. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure.
3. Some examples such as AEG bot, AI2 Platform,are used to determine software bug and cyber-attacks in a better way.

6. AI IN SOCIAL MEDIA
4. Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user profiles, which need to be stored and
managed in a very efficient way.
5. AI can organize and manage massive amounts of data.
6. AI can analyze lots of data to identify the latest trends, hashtag, and requirement of different users.

7. AI IN TRAVEL & TRANSPORT

7. AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries.
8. AI is capable of doing various travel related works such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels, flights, and
best routes to the customers.
9. Travel industries are using AI-powered chatbots which can make human-like interaction with customers for better and fast
response.

8. AI IN AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
10. Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their user for better performance.
11. Such as Tesla has introduced Tesla-Bot, an intelligent virtual assistant.
12. Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can make your journey more safe and secure.
9. AI IN ROBOTICS:
10. Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics.
11. Usually, general robots are programmed such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI, we can create
intelligent robots which can perform tasks with their own experiences without pre-programmed.
12. Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent Humanoid robot named as Erica and Sophia has been
developed which can talk and behave like humans.
10. AI IN ENTERTAINMENT:
13. We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some entertainment services such as Netflix or Amazon.
14. With the help of ML/AI algorithms, these services show the recommendations for programs or shows.

11. AI IN AGRICULTURE
15. Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for best result.
16. Now a day’s agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field.
17. Agriculture is applying AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring, predictive analysis.
18. AI in agriculture can be very helpful for farmers

12. AI IN E-COMMERCE
19. AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming more demanding in the e-commerce
business.
20. AI is helping shoppers to discover associated products with recommended size, color, or even brand.

13. AI IN EDUCATION:
AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can communicate with students as a teaching
assistant.
 TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

The main aim of Artificial Intelligence aim is to enable machines to perform a human-like function. Artificial Intelligence
can be divided in various types , there are mainly two types of main categorization which are based on capabilities and
based on functionally of AI.
(AGI)
BASED ON FUNCTIONALITY

1. REACTIVE MACHINES

1) Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.

2) Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.

3) These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best action.
4) IBM’s Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.

5) Google’s AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. LIMITED MEMORY

6) Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of time.

7) These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.

8) Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars can store recent speed of

nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other information to navigate the road.
3. THEORY OF MIND

1) Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able to interact socially like
humans.
2) This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of efforts and improvement for
developing such AI machines.

4. SELF-AWARENESS

3) Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super intelligent, and will have

their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness.

4) These machines will be smarter than human mind.
5) Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.
 BASED ON CAPABILITIES :

1. WEAK AI OR NARROW AI (ANI) :

1) Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence. The most common and
currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial Intelligence.

2) Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one specific task. Hence it is also
termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its limits.

3) IBM’s Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert system approach combined
with Machine learning and natural language processing.

4) Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-commerce site, self-driving cars, speech
recognition, and image recognition.
2. GENERAL AI (AGI) :

1) General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with
efficiency like a human.

2) The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and think
like a human by its own.

3) Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI and can
perform any task as perfect as a human.

4) The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.

5) As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and
time to develop such systems.
 3. SUPER-INTELLIGENT AI (ASI) :
1) Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human intelligence, and

can perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is an outcome of general AI.

2) Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to reason, solve the

puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its own.

3) Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such systems in real is

still world changing task.

 FOUNDATIONS OF AI
1. Philosophy
1. The Big Questions : It asks fundamental questions like "Can a machine ever be truly intelligent?" or "What does it mean
to have a mind?"
2. Rules for Reasoning : It provided the formal groundwork for logic, which is a key way AI systems use to represent
knowledge and make decisions.
3. The Turing Test : Philosophers like Alan Turing proposed practical ways to measure machine intelligence.
4. Ethics : It forces us to consider the right and wrong of AI, like bias in algorithms and the impact on society.

2. Mathematics
5. The Language of AI : It provides the core tools, primarily algorithms, which are the step-by-step instructions for solving
problems.
6. Logic and Rules : Formal logic (Boolean, first-order) allows AI to process facts and make deductions.
7. Probability & Statistics : This is crucial for dealing with uncertainty, making predictions, and for machine learning models
to learn from data.
8. Linear Algebra & Calculus : These are the engines behind neural networks, helping to optimize and fine-tune their
performance.

3. Economics
9. Rational Decision-Making : Economics studies how to make optimal choices to achieve goals, which is the core objective
of many AI agents.
10. Game Theory : It helps AIs model scenarios where multiple agents interact, strategize, and compete or cooperate (e.g., in
self-driving car navigation).
11. Utility Theory : Provides a framework for an AI to evaluate choices and select the one with the highest expected "benefit."
12. Designing Markets : AI is used to design and manage complex systems like online ad auctions or stock trading platforms.

4. Neuroscience
13. The Blueprint : It studies the human brain, the only proven example of general intelligence, providing inspiration for AI
5. Psychology
1. Understanding Intelligence: It studies how humans think, learn, perceive, and remember, providing a model for what AI
should be able to do.
2. Cognitive Modeling: AI researchers build computer models based on theories of human cognition to simulate our
thought processes.
3. Human-Computer Interaction (HCI): Psychology is key to designing AI systems that humans can understand, trust, and
work with effectively.
4. Behaviorism: The study of learning through rewards and punishments inspired a major type of AI called Reinforcement
Learning.

6. Computer Engineering
5. The Hardware: It provides the physical computational power (CPUs, GPUs) needed to run complex AI algorithms and
process massive datasets.
6. Efficiency and Speed: Engineers design faster and more specialized chips (like TPUs) specifically to accelerate AI training
and deployment.
7. Making it Practical: It turns theoretical AI concepts into real, working software and hardware systems that can be used in
the real world.
8. Storage and Networking: It builds the infrastructure to store the vast amounts of data that AI systems need to learn
from.

7. Control Theory & Cybernetics

9. Stable Systems: Control theory provides methods for designing systems that can achieve a desired goal and maintain
stability while doing so.
10. Feedback Loops: This is the core idea: a system senses its environment, acts, and then uses the result of that action to
adjust its next move (like a thermostat or a self-driving car staying in its lane).
11. Homeostasis: Cybernetics is the study of self-regulating systems, which is exactly what autonomous AI agents need to
be.
12. Early AI: This field was a direct precursor to modern AI, exploring how machines could interact intelligently with their
environment.
 AI TECHNIQUES
AI technique is a method to organize and use knowledge efficiently. It helps in
making decisions, predictions and solving complex problems that are hard to solve
with traditional programming
(refer your notes too)
Mentioning some AI Techniques as follows :
1. Search Algorithms
Methods to find a path or solution among many possibilities. Used in navigation and
problem-solving.

2. Knowledge Representation
Storing real-world information in a structured way for AI to use and reason with.

3. Machine Learning
AI learns from data to predict or decide without being explicitly programmed.

4. Probabilistic Reasoning
Uses probability to handle uncertainty and make informed guesses under
incomplete information.
 TASK CLASSIFICATION OF AI
1. MUNDANE OR ORDINARY TASKS
Definition : Simple, repetitive tasks that do not require deep reasoning or human expertise.
Examples : Data entry automation
Sorting emails into folders (e.g., spam filtering)
Simple rule-based decision making
Basic chatbots answering frequently asked questions (FAQs)

2. FORMAL TASKS
Definition : Well-defined tasks based on formal rules, logic, or structured data. These tasks often
involve mathematical or algorithmic reasoning.
Examples : Solving mathematical equations
Game playing (like Chess or Go with rule-based algorithms)
Theorem proving
Scheduling and optimization problems
Formal decision-making using decision trees

3. EXPERT TASKS
Definition : Complex tasks requiring deep domain knowledge, reasoning, and learning from large
data to provide expertise similar to human specialists.
Examples : Medical diagnosis (e.g., interpreting X-rays using AI)Legal document analysis
Financial forecasting and stock market prediction
Autonomous driving (interpreting complex real-world scenarios)
Advanced Natural Language Processing tasks (e.g., language
REFER
NOTES
ASWELL
 HUMAN INTELLIGENCE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Humans learn from experience, AI learned from data through
education and social algorithm improving over time
interactions adapting flexibly as it processes
to new situation more information

Human intelligence is often AI lags emotional capacity or

influenced by emotions Emotional Quotient (EQ)

Capable of original thoughts

and innovations, Solving Follows predefined rules and
problem creatively and patterns, offering creative
adapting solutions output from learned data

Skilled at abstract thinking, Efficient within its trained scope,

complex problem solving sometimes struggle with novel
or complex issues
Deeply understand personal Offer personalize response
context, Tailors solution to based on data but may lack
individual emotional debt in understanding
and practical needs individual needs

Humans can adapt changes AI takes much more time to

easily adjust to unused changes

Human intelligent arises from Artificial intelligence created

Origin biological evolution and program by humans itself
and development
Capable of ethical reasoning Follows programmed
based on societal guidelines with potential
norms/personal ethics biases in data leading to
ethical challenges