Materials Science and Engineering

Edition
Eighth
Eighth Edition

MATERIALS SCIENCE AND

CHAPTER
ENGINEERING :

6 William D. Callister, Jr.

David G. Rethwisch
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES

Lecture Notes:
Solomon B.
Addis Ababa University
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 Materials Science and Engineering
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WHY STUDY The Mechanical Properties of Metals?

• It is mandatory on engineers to understand
• how the various mechanical properties are measured, and
• what these properties represent;
• As an engineer you have to design structures/components using
predetermined materials properties such that, unacceptable levels
of deformation and/or failure will not occur.
In the processing/structure/properties/performance scheme
• Components made of steel alloys that are exposed to external
stresses and forces must be processed so as to have appropriate
levels of mechanical characteristics (i.e., stiffness, strength,
ductility, and toughness).
• It is essential that the designer or engineer understand the
significance of these properties, and, in addition, develop a sense
of perspective as to acceptable magnitudes of property values.
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Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to do the following:
• Engineering stress and Engineering strain.
• Hooke’s law and conditions under which it is valid.
• Define Poisson’s ratio
• Given an engineering stress–strain diagram, determine
• the modulus of elasticity, the yield strength (0.002 strain offset), the
tensile strength, and estimate the percent elongation.
• For the tensile deformation of a ductile cylindrical specimen,
• describe changes in specimen profile to the point of fracture.
• Compute ductility (% elongation and area reduction)
• Modulus of resilience and Toughness (static).
• compute True stress and True strain values.
• Hardness-testing techniques and micro-indentation hardness testing
techniques,
• Compute the working stress for a ductile material. FOS
• Name and briefly describe the two different type of Impact and bend
testing methods
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Have You Ever Wondered?

• Why can Silly Putty be stretched a considerable amount when pulled slowly, but
snaps when pulled fast?
• Silly Putty is an elastomer (polymer) made from silicone oil and boric acid.
Its chain of molecules are all tangled up. it has flexible molecules that,
when smooched by fingers, slide over each other and cause the material to
flow.
• Why can we load the weight of a fire truck on four ceramic coffee cups, yet
ceramic cups tend to break easily when we drop them on the floor?
• Since cracks and flaws tend to remain closed in
compression, brittle materials such as
concrete/ceramics are often incorporated into designs
so that only compressive stresses act on the part.
• Often, we find that brittle materials fail at much higher
compressive stresses than tensile stresses
• This is why it is possible to support a fire truck on four
coffee cups; however, ceramics have very limited
mechanical toughness. Hence, when we drop a ceramic
coffee cup, it can break easily.”
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Have You Ever Wondered?

• What materials related factors played an important role
in the sinking of the Titanic?
• The Hull Steel.
• The first hint that brittle fracture of the hull steel contributed to the
Titanic disaster came following the recovery of a piece of the hull steel
from the Titanic wreck.
• After cleaning the piece of steel, the scientists noted the condition of
the edges. Jagged and sharp, the edges of the piece of steel appeared
almost shattered, like broken ceramic. Also, the metal showed no
evidence bending or deformation. When the Titanic collided with the
iceberg, the hull steel and the wrought iron rivets failed because of
brittle fracture.
• A type of catastrophic failure in structural materials, brittle fracture
occurs without prior plastic deformation and at extremely high speeds.
• Typical high-quality ship steel is more ductile and deforms rather than
breaks
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Have You Ever Wondered?

• What factors played a major role in the 1986
Challenger space shuttle accident?
• From a technical perspective, experts cite lower-than-expected
launch temperatures at Florida's Cape Canaveral, which caused a
tiny rubber part called an O-ring to malfunction.

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Introduction
The mechanical properties of materials depend on
• their composition and microstructure.
In Chapters 2, 3, and 4, we learned that a material’s
• composition,
• nature of bonding,
• crystal structure, and
• defects (e.g., dislocations, grain boundaries, etc.)
have a profound influence on the strength and ductility
of metallic materials.
In this chapter, we will begin to evaluate other factors that affect the
mechanical properties of materials, such as
• how lower temperatures can cause many metals and plastics to become
brittle.
• How the strain rate affects materials property
• We will learn terms such as hardness, stress, strain, elastic and plastic
deformation, viscoelasticity
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Introduction
• Lower temperatures contributed to the brittleness of the plastic
used for O-rings in the solid rocket boosters, causing the 1986
Challenger accident.

• In 2003, the space shuttle Columbia was lost because of the

impact of debris on the ceramic tiles and failure of carbon–
carbon composites.

• Similarly, the special chemistry of the steel used on the Titanic

and the stresses associated with the fabrication and
embrittlement of this steel when subjected to lower temperatures
have been identified as factors contributing to the failure of the
ship’s hull. Some researchers have shown that weak rivets and
design flaws also contributed to the failure.
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Technological Significance
In many of today’s emerging technologies, the primary
emphasis is on the Mechanical Properties of the
materials used.
For example,
1. In aircraft manufacturing, aluminum alloys or carbon-reinforced composites
used for aircraft components must be light weight, strong, and able to
withstand cyclic mechanical loading for a long and predictable period of time.
2. Steels used in the construction of structures such as buildings and bridges must
have adequate strength so that these structures can be built without
compromising safety.
3. The plastics used for manufacturing pipes, valves, flooring, and the like also
must have adequate mechanical strength.
4. Materials such as pyrolytic graphite or cobalt chromium tungsten alloys,
used for prosthetic heart valves, must not fail.
5. the performance of baseballs, cricket bats, tennis rackets, golf clubs, skis, and
other sports equipment depends not only on the strength and weight of the
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Technological Significance…
In many applications, the mechanical properties of the material
play an important role
For example,
• an optical fiber must have a certain level of strength to withstand the
stresses encountered in its application.
• A biocompatible titanium alloy used for a bone implant must have enough
strength and toughness to survive in the human body for many years without
failure.
• A scratch-resistant coating on optical lenses must resist mechanical abrasion.
• An aluminum alloy or a glass-ceramic substrate used as a base for building
magnetic hard drives must have sufficient mechanical strength so that it will
not break or crack during operation that requires rotation at high speeds
• Float glass used in automotive and building applications must have
sufficient strength and shatter resistance

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Technological Significance….

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Technological Significance…
For load-bearing applications, engineered materials are
selected by matching their mechanical properties to the
design specifications and service conditions required of
the component.
Steps in the selection
1. analysis of the material’s application to determine its most important
characteristics
• Should it be strong, stiff, or ductile?
• Will it be subjected to an application involving high stress or sudden
intense force, high stress at elevated temperature, cyclic stresses,
and/or corrosive or abrasive conditions?
2. preliminary selection of the appropriate material using various databases
N.B. We must know
• how the properties listed in the handbook are obtained,
• what the properties mean, and
• realize that the properties listed are obtained from idealized tests that may
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Terminology for Mechanical Properties

Types of forces or “stresses” that are encountered in dealing
with mechanical properties of materials.

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Terminology for Mechanical Properties

Stress :The force acting per unit area over which the force is applied
Strain :is defined as the change in dimension per unit length
Tensile and compressive stresses are normal stresses. A normal stress arises when
the applied force acts perpendicular to the area of interest
Tension causes elongation in the direction of the applied force, whereas
compression causes shortening
A shear stress arises when the applied force acts in a direction parallel to the area of
interest.

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Terminology for Mechanical Properties…

Elastic deformation: is nonpermanent, which means that when the applied load
is released, the piece returns to its original shape.

Elastic strain: is defined as fully recoverable strain resulting from an applied

stress
A material subjected to an elastic strain does not show any permanent
deformation
In many materials, elastic stress and elastic strain are linearly related.
Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity (E): is the slope of a tensile stress-
strain curve in the linear regime
Elastomers : materials which shows large elastic deformations and has a non-
linear relationship between elastic strain and stress (e.g., natural rubber,
silicones)
The large elastic strain is related to the coiling and uncoiling of spring-
like molecules
Shear modulus (G): the slope of the linear part of the shear stress-shear strain
curve.
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Terminology for Mechanical Properties…

Plastic deformation: is known as the plastic strain. when the stress is removed,
the material does not go back to its original shape. A dent in a car is
plastic deformation
strain rate: The rate at which strain develops in a material. it is important b/se
Many materials considered to be ductile behave as brittle solids when the
strain rates are high.
viscous material : is one in which the strain develops over a period of time and the
material does not return to its original shape after the stress is removed.
The development of strain takes time and is not in phase with the applied
stress, Also, the material will remain deformed when the applied stress is
removed (i.e., the strain will be plastic)
Viscoelastic (or anelastic) material can be thought of as a material with a response
between that of a viscous material and an elastic material. Many plastics
(solids and molten) are viscoelastic. In a viscoelastic material, the
development of a permanent strain is similar to that in a viscous material.
• Unlike a viscous material, when the applied stress is removed, part of
the strain in a viscoelastic material will recover over a period of time.
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Terminology for Mechanical Properties…

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Terminology for Mechanical Properties…

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The Tensile Test: Use of the Stress–Strain Diagram

The tensile test is popular since the properties obtained can be
applied to design different components. The tensile test measures the
resistance of a material to a static or slowly applied force. The strain
rates in a tensile test are typically small (10 -4 to 10-2 s-1)

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Elastic Deformation
The specimen is placed in the testing machine and a force F, called the load, is
applied.
A strain gage or extensometer is used to measure the amount that the specimen
stretches between the gage marks when the force is applied.
Information concerning the strength, Young’s modulus, and ductility of a
material can be obtained from such a tensile test.

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Elastic Deformation
STRESS–STRAIN BEHAVIOR
Elastic means reversible
The degree to which a structure deforms or strains depends on the magnitude of an
imposed stress. For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively low
levels, stress and strain are proportional to each other through the relationship
σ = Eε

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to F Linear-
initial elastic
 Non-Linear-
elastic
F 
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Elastic Deformation
Elastic deformation
Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional
Modulus of elasticity E
The slope of this linear segment.
This modulus may be thought of as stiffness, or a material’s resistance to
elastic deformation.
The greater the modulus,
the stiffer the material, or
the smaller the elastic strain that results from the application of a given
stress.

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Elastic Deformation
There are some materials (e.g., gray cast iron, concrete, and many
polymers) for which this elastic portion of the stress–strain curve is not
linear
For this nonlinear behavior, either tangent or secant modulus is normally
used.

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Modulus of elasticity - interatomic bonding

On an atomic scale, macroscopic elastic strain is manifested as small
changes in the interatomic spacing and the stretching of interatomic bonds.
As a consequence, the magnitude of the modulus of elasticity is a measure
of the resistance to separation of adjacent atoms, that is, the interatomic
bonding forces.
Modulus is proportional to the slope of the interatomic force-separation
curve

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Modulus of elasticity
Values of the modulus of elasticity for ceramic materials are about
the same as for metals; for polymers they are lower
Furthermore, with increasing temperature, the modulus of elasticity
diminishes,

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Anelasticity
• Up to this point, it has been assumed that elastic deformation is
time independent
• It has also been assumed that upon release of the load the
strain is totally recovered
• In most engineering materials, however, there will also exist a
time-dependent elastic strain component.
• That is, elastic deformation will continue after the stress
application, and upon load release some finite time is required for
complete recovery.
• This time-dependent elastic behavior is known as anelasticity,
and it is due to time-dependent microscopic and atomistic
processes that are attendant to the deformation.

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Example Problem 1
Elongation (Elastic) Computation
A piece of copper originally 305 mm (12 in.) long is pulled in
tension with a stress of 276 MPa (40,000 psi). If the deformation is
entirely elastic, what will be the resultant elongation? E = 110 GPa
Because the deformation is elastic, strain is dependent on stress according to

Furthermore, the elongation is related to the original length l0through the above eqn.
Combining these two expressions and solving for l yields

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Elastic Properties Of Materials

When a tensile stress is imposed on a metal specimen, an elastic elongation and
accompanying strain result in the direction of the applied stress , As a result of
this elongation, there will be constrictions in the lateral (x and y) directions
perpendicular to the applied stress; from these contractions, the compressive
strains xand may be determined.
Poisson’s ratio (v):

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Example Problem 2
Computation of Load to Produce Specified
Diameter Change
A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a
cylindrical brass rod that has a diameter of 10 mm. Determine
the magnitude of the load required to produce a 2.5 x103mm
change in diameter if the deformation is entirely elastic.

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Example 3 Design of a Suspension Rod

An aluminum rod is to withstand an applied force of 45,000 pounds. The
engineering stress–strain curve for the aluminum alloy to be used is shown in
Figure 6-7. To ensure safety, the maximum allowable stress on the rod is limited
to 25,000 psi, which is below the yield strength of the aluminum. The rod must be
at least 150 in. long but must deform elastically no more than 0.25 in. when the
force is applied. Design an appropriate rod.

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Plastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

elastic + plastic plastic

F
F
linear linear
Plastic means permanent. elastic elastic

plastic
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Plastic Deformation (permanent)

• From an atomic perspective, plastic deformation

corresponds to the breaking of bonds with original
atom neighbors and then reforming bonds with new
neighbors.
• After removal of the stress, the large number of atoms
that have relocated, do not return to original position.
• Yield strength is a measure of resistance to plastic
deformation.

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Permanent Deformation
• Permanent deformation for metals is accomplished by
means of a process called slip, which involves the
motion of dislocations.
• Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic
deformation results when stress is applied.
• A structure that has plastically deformed, or
experienced a permanent change in shape, may not be
capable of functioning as intended.

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Properties Obtained from the Tensile Test

Yield Strength

Typical stress-strain
behavior for a metal
showing elastic and plastic
deformations, the
proportional limit P and the
yield strength σy, as
determined using the
0.002 strain offset method
(where there is noticeable
plastic deformation). P is
the gradual elastic to
plastic transition.
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Yield Points and σYS

• Yield-point phenomenon occurs when elastic plastic
transition is abrupt.
No offset method required.
• In steels, this effect is seen when
dislocations start to move and
unbind for interstitial solute.

• Lower yield point taken as σY.

For steels, take the avg.
stress of lower yield • Jagged curve at lower yield point
point since less
sensitive to testing occurs when solute binds
methods. dislocation and dislocation
unbinding again, until work-
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Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength 3 necking
 UTS
E
Slope=
Strain
yield Hardening Fracture
strength
y 5
2
Elastic region
Stress (F/A)

Plastic slope =Young’s (elastic) modulus

Region yield strength
Plastic region
• ultimate tensile strength
Elastic • strain hardening
Region • fracture
σ E ε 4
σ 1
E
ε E
σy Strain (  ) (DL/Lo)
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Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

• Elastic Region (Point 1 –2)
- The material will return to its original shape
after the material is unloaded( like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in
this region.
σ
σ E ε or E
ε
: Stress(psi)
E : Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus) (psi)
: Strain (in/in)

- Point2 : Yield Strength : a point where permanent

deformation occurs. ( If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
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Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

• Strain Hardening
- If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
Elastic Modulus (slope).
- The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 4.
- Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called Strain Hardening.

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Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

• Tensile Strength (Point 3)

- The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength(TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS)
- It is the maximum stress which the material can
support without breaking.
• Fracture (Point 5)
- If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occur.
- Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
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(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

• Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test produces a

necked region.
• The image shows necked region in a fractured sample

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T
E
N
S
I
L
E

P
R
O
P
E
R
T
I
E
S

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Yield Strength: Comparison

Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140)qt

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
1000
Yield strength,y (MPa)

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a
W (pure)
700
600 Cu (71500)cw
500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140)a
400
Steel (1020)cd

Hard to measure,
300
Hard to measure

Al (6061)ag
,

Steel (1020)hr
200
Ti (pure)a ¨ Room T values
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500)hr a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
100
dry ag = aged
70 PC cd = cold drawn
60 Al (6061)a Nylon 6,6 cw = cold worked
50 PET
40 PVC humid qt = quenched & tempered
PP
30 HDPE

20

LDPE
Tin (pure)
10
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Tensile Strength, TS
• After yielding, the stress necessary to
continue plastic deformation in metals
increases to a maximum point (M) and then
decreases to the eventual fracture point (F).
• All deformation up to the maximum
stress is uniform throughout the tensile
sample.
• However, at max stress, a small
constriction or neck begins to form.
• Subsequent deformation will be confined
to this neck area.
• Fracture strength corresponds to the stress
at fracture.
Region between M and F:
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and about to break.
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Stress-Strain in Polymers
• 3 different types of behavior For plastic polymers:
• YS at maximum stress
Brittle
just after elastic region.
• TS is stress at fracture!
plastic

Highly elastic

• Highly elastic polymers:

• Elongate to as much as 1000% .
• 7 MPa < E < 4 GPa
• TS(max) ~ 100 MPa some metal alloys up to 4
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Stress-Strain in Polymers

In an undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample,
(a) the polymer chains are
randomly oriented.
(b) When a stress is
applied, a neck
develops as chains
become aligned
locally. The neck
continues to grow until
the chains in the entire
gage length have
aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased

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Tensile Strength: Comparison

Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
(MPa)

3000 E-glass fib

2000 Steel (4140)qt
AFRE (|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE (|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE (|| fiber)
Tensile strength, TS

Steel (4140)
Cu (71500)cw Si nitride
Cu (71500)hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
300 Al (6061)ag Room T values
Ti (pure)a
200 Ta (pure) Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e.
Al (6061)a Si crystal wood(|| fiber)
a = annealed
100 <100> Nylon 6,6 hr = hot rolled
Glass-soda PC PET
40 Concrete PVC GFRE ( fiber) ag = aged
30 PP CFRE ( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)
cd = cold drawn
HDPE cw = cold worked
20 Graphite
LDPE qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
10
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
wood( fiber) fibers.

1
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Example 4 Tensile Testing of Aluminum Alloy

Convert the change in length data in the table to engineering

stress and strain and plot a stress-strain curve.

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Example 4 SOLUTION

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(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

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Example 2: Mechanical Property Determinations

from Stress–Strain Plot
From the tensile stress–strain behavior for the brass
specimen shown in Figure 6.12, determine the following:
a) The modulus of elasticity
b) The yield strength at a strain offset of 0.002
c) The maximum load that can be sustained by a
cylindrical specimen having an original diameter of
12.8 mm (0.505 in.)
d) The change in length of a specimen originally (2 in.)
long that is subjected to a tensile stress of (40,000
psi)

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Ductility, %EL
Ductility is a measure of the
plastic deformation that has %EL
been sustained at fracture:
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile
stress,  Ao
larger %EL Lo Af Lf
(ductile if
A material
%EL>5%)
that suffers
very little
plastic Engineering tensile strain, 
deformation is
brittle. • Another ductility measure: %AR

• Ductility may be expressed as either percent elongation (% plastic strain at fracture) or

percent reduction in area.
• %AR > %EL is possible if internal voids form in neck.
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Ductility
A knowledge of the ductility of materials is
important for at least two reasons.
1. It indicates to a designer the degree to which a
structure will deform plastically before fracture.
2. It specifies the degree of allowable deformation during
fabrication operations.

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RESILIENCE

Capacity to absorb energy when deformed elastically and then upon

unloading, to have this energy recovered

Modulus of Resilience
y
U r  d
0

For a linear elastic region:

2
1 y
U r   y y 
2 2E
Resilient materials are those having high yield
strengths and low moduli of elasticity; such
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Toughness
Lower toughness: ceramics
Toughness is the Higher toughness: metals
ability to absorb
energy up to fracture
(energy per unit
volume of material).

A “tough” material has

strength and ductility.

Approximated by the
area under the stress-
strain
curve.

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Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.

Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)

tensile larger toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, 

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Effect of Temperature
Mechanical properties of materials depend on temperature ( Figure 6-13).
Yield strength, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity decrease at
higher temperatures, whereas ductility commonly increases.

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Effect of Temperature on metalic materials

In metals, the yield strength decreases rapidly at higher
temperatures due to
a. a decreased dislocation density and
b. an increase in grain size via grain growth
c. Similarly, any strengthening that may have occurred
due to the formation of ultrafine precipitates may also
decrease as the precipitates begin to either grow in
size or dissolve into the matrix.
When temperatures are reduced, many, but not all, metals
and alloys become brittle.

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Effect of Temperature on polymeric materials

Increased temperatures also play an important role in
forming polymeric materials and inorganic glasses.

For polymers, the term “high temperature” generally means a

temperature higher than the glass-transition temperature
(Tg).

For our purpose, the glass-transition temperature is a

temperature below which materials behave as brittle
materials. Above the glass-transition temperature, plastics
become ductile.

Many plastics are ductile at room temperature because their

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Effect of Temperature on ceramic materials

Ceramic and glassy materials are generally
considered brittle at room temperature.

As the temperature increases, glasses can become

more ductile.
As a result, glass processing (e.g., fiber drawing
or bottle manufacturing) is performed at high
temperatures.

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True Stress and True Strain

 True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional

area of the specimen at that load.
 True strain The strain calculated using actual and not
original dimensions, given by εt ln(l/l0).

•The relation between the true

stress-true strain diagram and
engineering stress-engineering
strain diagram.
•The curves are identical to the
yield point.

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Ductility and True-Stress-at-Fracture Computations
A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter of 12.8
mm (0.505 in.) is tensile-tested to fracture and found to have an
engineering fracture strength of 460 MPa (67,000 psi). If its cross-
sectional diameter at fracture is 10.7 mm (0.422 in.), determine:
a) The ductility in terms of percent reduction in area
b) The true stress at fracture

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Mechanical Behavior - Ceramics

• The stress-strain behavior of brittle

ceramics is not usually obtained by a
tensile test.
1. It is difficult to prepare and test
specimens with specific geometry.
2. It is difficult to grip brittle materials without
fracturing them.
3. Ceramics fail after roughly 0.1% strain;
specimen have to be perfectly aligned.

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The Bend Test for Brittle Materials

 Bend test - Application of a force to the center of a bar

that is supported on each end to determine the
resistance of the material to a static or slowly applied
load.
 Flexural strength or modulus of rupture -The stress
required to fracture a specimen in a bend test.
 Flexural modulus - The modulus of elasticity calculated
from the results of a bend test, giving the slope of the
stress-deflection curve.

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(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials compared with

that of more ductile materials

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(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

(a) The bend test often used for measuring the strength
of brittle materials, and (b) the deflection δ obtained by
bending

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MEASURING STRENGTH
• 3-point bend test to measure room T strength.
cross section F
L/2 L/2
d R
b
rect. circ.

location of max tension

• Flexural strength: • Typ. values:

Material fs(MPa) E(GPa)
fail 1.5FmaxL FmaxL
 fs  m   Si nitride 700-1000 300
bd2 R3 Si carbide 550-860 430
F rect. Al oxide 275-550 390
Fmax x glass (soda) 69 69
Data from Table 12.5, Callister 6e.


max 24
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c07f18 Flexural Strength

• Schematic for a 3-
point bending test.
• Able to measure the
stress-strain
behavior and flexural
strength of brittle
ceramics.
• Flexural strength
(modulus of rupture
or bend strength) is
the stress at fracture.
See Table 7.2 for more values.

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The impact test

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Properties Obtained from

the Impact Test
1. Ductile to Brittle Transition
Temperature (DBTT):
– is the temperature at which the failure
mode of a material changes from
ductile to brittle fracture
– BCC metals have transition
temperatures, but most FCC metals do
not.
– In polymeric materials, the ductile to
brittle transition temperature is related
closely to the glass-transition
temperature

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Properties Obtained from the Impact Test

2. Notch Sensitivity
• Notches caused by poor machining, fabrication,
or design concentrate stresses and reduce the
toughness of materials.
• It is evaluated by comparing the absorbed
energies of notched versus un-notched
specimens.
• The absorbed energies are much lower in notched
specimens if the material is notch-sensitive

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Properties Obtained from the Impact Test

3. Relationship to the Stress-Strain Diagram
• the impact toughness is not always related to the
tensile toughness
• metals with both high strength and high
ductility have good tensile toughness; however,
this is not always the case when the strain rates
are high.
– For example, metals that show excellent tensile toughness may
show brittle behavior under high strain rates. Thus, the imposed
strain rate can shift the ductile to brittle transition.

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Use of Impact Properties

• Absorbed energy and the DBTT are very
sensitive to loading conditions
• For example,
– a higher rate of application of energy to the specimen
reduces the absorbed energy and increases the DBTT.

– The size of the specimen also affects the results;

because it is more difficult for a thick material to deform,
smaller energies are required to break thicker materials.

– the configuration of the notch affects the behavior; a

sharp, pointed surface crack permits lower absorbed
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Example
Design sledgehammer for driving steel fence posts
into the ground.

• the design requirements to be met by the sledgehammer

1. The handle should be light in weight, yet tough enough that it will not
catastrophically break.
2. The head must not break or chip during use, even in subzero
temperatures.
3. The head must not deform during continued use.
4. The head must be large enough to ensure that the user does not
miss the fence post, and it should not include sharp notches that
might cause chipping.
5. The sledgehammer should be inexpensive

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SOLUTION
• Although the handle could be a lightweight, tough composite material
(such as a polymer reinforced with Kevlar (a special polymer) fibers), a
wood handle about 30 in. long would be much less expensive and
would still provide sufficient toughness.
• To produce the head, we prefer a material that has
• 1. low transition temperature, 2. high Impact toughness, and
3. enough hardness to avoid deformation.
– The toughness requirement would rule out most ceramics.
– A face-centered cubic metal, such as FCC stainless steel or
copper, might provide superior toughness even at low
temperatures; however, these metals are relatively soft and
expensive.
– An appropriate choice might be a BCC steel. Ordinary steels are
inexpensive, have good hardness and strength, and some have
sufficient toughness at low temperatures

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Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to
localized plastic deformation (a small dent or scratch).

Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed

where a small indenter is forced into the surface of a
material.

The depth or size of the indentation is measured, and

corresponds to a hardness number.

The softer the material, the larger and deeper the

indentation (and lower hardness number).
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Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness

Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons,
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c07tf05

81

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Conversion
c07f30 of
Hardness Scales

Also see: ASTM E140 - 07

Volume 03.01
Standard Hardness Conversion
Tables for Metals Relationship
Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers
Hardness, Rockwell Hardness,
Superficial Hardness, Knoop
Hardness, and Scleroscope
Hardness
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7.20 DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS

• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N
Often N is
y between
 working  1.2 and 4
N
• Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
y 1045 plain
 working 
N carbon steel:
Lo
y=310MPa
220,000N
5 TS=565MPa
 
 d2 /4
 
F = 220,000N
d = 47.5 mm 29
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Summary

• Stress and strain: These are size-independent

measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches sy.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

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