15EC502 – Linear Integrated Circuits

UNIT V - WAVEFORM GENERATORS AND

SPECIAL FUNCTION ICs

• Timer IC 555
• ICL8038 Function Generator
• IC Voltage Regulators
• LM317 Three Terminal Fixed and Adjustable
Voltage Regulators
• IC 723 General Purpose Regulator
• Switching Regulators, Monolithic Switching
Regulator
• Switched Capacitor Filter IC MF10
• Frequency to Voltage and Voltage to Frequency
Converters
• Audio Power Amplifier
• Video Amplifier.
 Sample and Hold Circuits
Circuit Diagram
 Sample and Hold Circuits
Working
 Sample and Hold Circuits
Waveform
 Sample and Hold Circuits
Working
 555 Timer
General

 A Timer IC introduced by Signetics Corporation in

1970’s and gave the name SE/NE 555 timer.
 The 555IC is reliable and is cheap in cost.
 Its applications are monostable multivibrator and
astable multivibrator.
 A 555 timer can also be used in dc-dc converters,
digital logic probes, waveform generators, analog
frequency meters and tachometers, temperature
measurement and control devices, voltage
regulators etc
 The timer IC is set up to work in either of the two
modes – one-shot or monostable or as a free-
running or astable multivibrator.
 The SE 555 can be used for temperature ranges
between – 55°C to 125°. The NE 555 can be used
for a temperature range between 0° to 70°C.
 555 Timer
Pin Diagram
 555 Timer
Pin Diagram
 Pin 1. – Ground, The ground pin connects the 555 timer to the negative (0v) supply rail.
 Pin 2. – Trigger, The negative input to comparator No 1. A negative pulse on this pin “sets”
the internal Flip-flop when the voltage drops below 1/3Vcc causing the output to switch from
a “LOW” to a “HIGH” state.
 Pin 3. – Output, The output pin can drive any TTL circuit
 Pin 4. – Reset, This pin is used to “reset” the internal Flip-flop controlling the state of the
output, pin 3. This is an active-low input and is generally connected to a logic “1” level when
not used to prevent any unwanted resetting of the output.
 Pin 5. – Control Voltage, This pin controls the timing of the 555 by overriding the 2/3Vcc
level of the voltage divider network. By applying a voltage to this pin the width of the output
signal can be varied independently of the RC timing network. When not used it is connected
to ground via a 10nF capacitor to eliminate any noise.
 Pin 6. – Threshold, The positive input to comparator No 2. This pin is used to reset the Flip-
flop when the voltage applied to it exceeds 2/3Vcc causing the output to switch from “HIGH”
to “LOW” state. This pin connects directly to the RC timing circuit.
 Pin 7. – Discharge, The discharge pin is connected directly to the Collector of an internal
NPN transistor which is used to “discharge” the timing capacitor to ground when the output
at pin 3 switches “LOW”.
 Pin 8. – Supply +Vcc, This is the power supply pin and for general purpose TTL 555 timers
is between 5V and 15V.
 555 Timer
Block Diagram
 555 Timer
Functional Description

 The 555 Timers name comes from the fact that there are three 5kΩ resistors connected
together internally producing a voltage divider network between the supply voltage at pin
8 and ground at pin 1.
 The voltage across this series resistive network holds the negative inverting input of
comparator two at 2/3Vcc and the positive non-inverting input to comparator one at
1/3Vcc.

 The two comparators produce an output voltage dependent upon the voltage difference at
their inputs which is determined by the charging and discharging action of the externally
connected RC network.
 The outputs from both comparators are connected to the two inputs of the flip-flop which
in turn produces either a “HIGH” or “LOW” level output at Q based on the states of its
inputs.
 The output from the flip-flop is used to control a high current output switching stage to
drive the connected load producing either a “HIGH” or “LOW” voltage level at the output
pin.
 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator
Diagram
 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator
Circuit Diagram
 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator
Functional Description

 When a negative (0V) pulse is applied to the trigger input (pin 2) of the Monostable
configured 555 Timer oscillator, the internal comparator, (comparator No1) detects this input
and “sets” the state of the flip-flop, changing the output from a “LOW” state to a “HIGH”
state. This action in turn turns “OFF” the discharge transistor (Q1) connected to pin 7,
thereby removing the short circuit across the external timing capacitor, C 1.

 This action allows the timing capacitor (C1) to start to charge up through resistor, R1 until
the voltage across the capacitor reaches the threshold (pin 6) voltage of 2/3Vcc set up by the
internal voltage divider network.
 At this point the comparators output goes “HIGH” and “resets” the flip-flop back to its
original state which in turn turns “ON” the transistor and discharges the capacitor to
ground through pin 7. This causes the output to change its state back to the original stable
“LOW” value awaiting another trigger pulse to start the timing process over again. Then as
before, the Monostable Multivibrator has only “ONE” stable state.
 The Monostable 555 Timer circuit triggers on a negative-going pulse applied to pin 2 and
this trigger pulse must be much shorter than the output pulse width allowing time for the
timing capacitor to charge and then discharge fully.
 Once triggered, the 555 Monostable will remain in this “HIGH” unstable output state
until the time period set up by the R1 x C1 network has elapsed.
 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator
Timing Diagrams
 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator
Timing Calculation
 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator - Applications

Missing Pulse Detector

 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator - Applications

Missing Pulse Detector

 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator - Applications
Missing Pulse Detector
 A PNP transistor is connected across the capacitor and the input trigger pulse train is given
to the base terminal of the transistor as well as the pin 2 trigger input of the IC 555.
 The train of trigger pulses will continuously reset the timing cycle. Hence the output is
always high. If any trigger pulse is missing, the device detects this missing pulse and the
output goes low.
 When the input is 0, the PNP transistor is turned ON and the voltage across the capacitor is
clamped to 0.7 V and the output is HIGH. When the input trigger voltage is high, the
transistor is cut-off and the capacitor will start charging.

 If the input trigger signal goes low again before the completion of the timing cycle, the
voltage across the capacitor falls to 0.7 V before reaching the threshold voltage (2/3 VCC)
and the output continues to remain HIGH.
 If the input trigger signal doesn’t go low before the completion of the timing cycle due to a missing pulse,
it allows the capacitor to charge to the threshold voltage and the output will become LOW.

 In order to make this circuit work as a Missing Pulse Detector, the time period of the input
trigger signal should be slightly lesser than the timing interval. Because of this, the
continuous negative going input pulses will not allow the capacitor to charge till the threshold
voltage. And the output continues to stay high. In case of change of input frequency or a
missing pulse, the capacitor will charge to the threshold voltage and the output falls low.
 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator - Applications

Linear Ramp Generator

 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator - Applications

Linear Ramp Generator

 The monostable multivibrator will act as a Linear Ramp Generator with the addition of a
constant current source. A current mirror, consisting of a diode and a PNP transistor, is
used as a Constant Current Source. This constant current source is positioned in place of the
timing resistor.
 The current IC from the constant current source will charge the capacitor at a constant rate
towards the peak voltage (VCC) resulting in a rising linear ramp. As the voltage across the
capacitor reaches 2/3 VCC, the comparator 1 will drive the discharge transistor to
saturation. As a result, the capacitor starts discharging. While discharging, as the voltage
across the capacitor falls to 1/3 VCC, the comparator 2 will turn off the discharge capacitor.
 Hence the capacitor will start charging again. The discharge time of the capacitor is very
less when compared to the charging time. As a result, the downward ramp is very steep
(almost an immediate discharge).
 The time period of the ramp output is approximately given by
T = (2/(3 ) Vcc Re (R1+R2)C)/(R1 Vcc – Vbe (R1+R2))
 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator - Applications

Frequency Divider
 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator - Applications

Frequency Divider
 When the IC 555 is used as a monostable multivibrator, a positive going rectangular pulse is
available at the output when a negative going pulse of short duration is applied at the trigger
input.
 By adjusting the time interval t of the charging or timing circuit the device can be made to
work as a Frequency Divider circuit.
 If the timing interval t is made slightly larger than the time period of the input pulse
(trigger pulse), the device can act as a Divide – by – two circuit.
 The timing interval can be controlled by appropriately choosing the values of the resistor R
and the capacitor C in the timing circuit.

 The circuit will trigger for the first negative pulse of the trigger input. As a result, the output
will go to high state. The output will remain high for the time interval t.
 During this interval, even if a second negative going trigger pulse is applied, the output will
not be affected and continues to remain high as the timing interval is greater than the time
period of the trigger pulse. On the third negative going trigger pulse, the circuit is
retriggered.
 So the circuit will trigger on every alternate negative going trigger pulse i.e. there is one
output pulse for every two input pulses and hence it is a divide–by–two circuit.
 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator - Applications

Pulse Width Modulation

 555 Timer - Monostable Multivibrator - Applications

Pulse Width Modulation

 The monostable mode of operation of the IC 555 can be turned into a Pulse Width Modulator
by applying a modulating signal as the control voltage at the pin 5.

 The control signal will modulate the threshold voltage and as a result, the output pulse width
is modulated. As the control voltage varies, the threshold voltage; which is the input to the
comparator 1, also varies. As a result, the time for charging the capacitor to the threshold
voltage level will vary, resulting in a pulse width modulated wave at the output.

 Due to the application of the control signal, the upper threshold voltage level for the capacitor
will be different. The new upper threshold level UTL is given by
 UTL = 2/3 VCC + VMOD
Where VMOD is the voltage of the modulating signal
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Schematic Diagram
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Schematic Diagram
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Circuit Diagram
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Description

 Astable multivibrator is also called as Free Running Multivibrator. It has no stable states and
continuously switches between the two states without application of any external trigger. The
IC 555 can be made to work as an astable multivibrator with the addition of three external
components: two resistors (R1 and R2) and a capacitor (C).
 The pins 2 and 6 are connected and hence there is no need for an external trigger pulse. It will
self trigger and act as a free running multivibrator.
 The rest of the connections are as follows: pin 8 is connected to supply voltage (VCC). Pin 3
is the output terminal and hence the output is available at this pin. Pin 4 is the external reset
pin. A momentary low on this pin will reset the timer. Hence when not in use, pin 4 is usually
tied to VCC.
 The control voltage applied at pin 5 will change the threshold voltage level. But for normal
use, pin 5 is connected to ground via a capacitor (usually 0.01µF), so the external noise from
the terminal is filtered out. Pin 1 is ground terminal.
 The timing circuit that determines the width of the output pulse is made up of RA, RB and
C.
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Working Principle
 Initially, on power-up, the flip-flop is RESET (and hence the output of the timer is low). As a
result, the discharge transistor is driven to saturation (as it is connected to Q’). The capacitor
C of the timing circuit is connected at Pin 7 of the IC 555 and will discharge through the
transistor. The output of the timer at this point is low. The voltage across the capacitor is
nothing but the trigger voltage.
 So while discharging, if the capacitor voltage becomes less than 1/3 VCC, which is the
reference voltage to trigger comparator (comparator 2), the output of the comparator 2 will
become high. This will SET the flip-flop and hence the output of the timer at pin 3 goes to
HIGH.

 This high output will turn OFF the transistor. As a result, the capacitor C starts charging
through the resistors R1 and R2. Now, the capacitor voltage is same as the threshold voltage
(as pin 6 is connected to the capacitor resistor junction). While charging, the capacitor
voltage increases exponentially towards VCC and the moment it crosses 2/3 VCC, which is
the reference voltage to threshold comparator (comparator 1), its output becomes high.

 As a result, the flip-flop is RESET. The output of the timer falls to LOW. This low output will
once again turn on the transistor which provides a discharge path to the capacitor. Hence the
capacitor C will discharge through the resistor R2. And hence the cycle continues.
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Working Principle

 While charging, the capacitor charges through the resistors R1 and R2. Therefore the
charging time constant is (RA + RB) C as the total resistance in the charging path is R A + RB.
While discharging, the capacitor discharges through the resistor R B only. Hence the discharge
time constant is RB C.
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Analysis
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Analysis
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Analysis
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Square wave Generation
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Square wave Generation
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator
Square wave Generation
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator Applications
FSK Generator
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator Applications
FSK Generator
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator Applications
Pulse Position Modulator
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator Applications
Pulse Position Modulator

 The threshold voltage for the first IC 555, which is determined by the control voltage
(modulating signal), is changed to UTL (Upper Threshold Level) and is given by
UTL = 2/3 VCC + VMOD
 As the threshold voltage changes with respect to the applied modulating signal, the width of
the pulse changes and the hence the time delay is varied. As this pulse width modulated
signal is applied to the trigger of the second IC, there will be no change in either amplitude or
width of the output pulse but only the position of the pulse is changed.
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator Applications
Pulse Position Modulator
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator Applications
Schmitt Trigger
 555 Timer - Astable Multivibrator Applications
Schmitt Trigger
 Voltage Regulators

Definition:

Voltage regulators are integrated circuits designed to regulate the voltage at their input to a
constant, fixed voltage at their output, irrespective of changes in load current or input voltage.

Types of voltage regulators

The two categories include:

1. Series/Linear voltage regulators (Fixed or Variable)
2. Switching voltage regulators
 Voltage Regulators

1. Series/Linear voltage regulators (Fixed or Variable)

 Use the principles of voltage dividers to transform the voltage at their input to the desired voltage at
their output.
 They employ a feedback loop that automatically varies the resistance in the system to counter the
effect of variations in the load impedance and input voltage, all to ensure the output voltage is kept
constant.
 Typical implementations of linear voltage regulators involve the use of FETs as one side of a voltage
divider with a feedback loop connected to the gate of the transistor, driving it as required to
ensure consistency in the output voltage.
 Some popular examples of linear voltage regulators include the 78xx (e.g L7805(5v),
L7809(9V)) series of voltage regulators.
 Voltage Regulators

1. Series/Linear voltage regulators (Fixed or Variable)

Pros

1. Simple and easy to design and implement

2. Generates a lower amount of EMI and noise
3. Fast response time to changes in load current or input voltage
conditions
4. Low ripple voltage at the output
Cons

1. Low efficiency as a large amount of electrical energy is wasted as heat

2. Drop-out voltage makes them a bad choice for low power applications
3. Occupy more space on PCB due to their need for heat sinks
4. Low efficiency as a large amount of electrical energy is wasted as heat
5. Drop-out voltage makes them a bad choice for low power applications
6. Occupy more space on PCB due to their need for heat sinks
 Voltage Regulators
2. Switching voltage regulators

 Switching voltage regulators are super-efficient regulators used in scenarios where power
loss, as in linear regulators, cannot be condoned.
 The voltage regulation mechanism in switching voltage regulators involves rapidly
switching an element connected in series with an energy storage component (capacitor or
inductor) to periodically interrupt the flow of current and transform the voltage from one
value to the other.
 Unlike in linear voltage regulators, the switching element is either in a fully conducting or
switched-off state.
 It dissipates no power and allows the regulator to attain a high level of efficiency beyond that
of the linear regulators.
 Voltage Regulators
2. Switching voltage regulators

Pros

1. Small size
2. High efficiency
3. They can provide an output voltage that is greater than or less than the
input voltage
4. Fits low power applications
Cons

1. Complicated design
2. Requires more additional components
3. Expensive
4. High EMI and noise generation rates that could affect product
certification if not properly managed
5. High output voltage ripple
6. Slower transient recovery time compared to linear regulators
 Voltage Regulators

1. Series/Linear voltage regulators (Fixed or Variable)

 Control element in series with load between input

and output.
 Output sample circuit senses a change in output
voltage.
 Error detector compares sample voltage with
reference voltage → causes control element to
compensate in order to maintain a constant output
voltage .
 Voltage Regulators
1. Series/Linear voltage regulators (Fixed or Variable)
 Voltage Regulators
1. Series/Linear voltage regulators (Fixed or Variable)

 The resistor R1 and R2 sense a change in the output voltage and provide a feedback voltage.
The error detector compares the feedback voltage with a Zener diode reference voltage.
 The resulting difference voltage causes the transistor Q 1 controls the conduction to
compensate the variation of the output voltage.
 The output voltage will be maintained at a constant value of

 The transistor Q1 is the series control element. Zener diode provides the reference voltage.
 Since Q1 is an npn transistor (Emitter Follower), Vo is found as
 Voltage Regulators
1. Series/Linear voltage regulators (Fixed or Variable)

The response of the pass-transistor to a change in load resistance as follows:

 If load resistance increases, load voltage also increases.
 Since the Zener voltage is constant, the increase in Vo causes VBE to
decrease.
 The decrease in VBE reduces conduction through the pass- transistor, so load
current decreases.
 This offsets the increase in load resistance, and a relatively constant load
voltage is maintained .
 Voltage Regulators
Fixed voltage regulators

 The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage Vi applied to

one input terminal, a regulated output dc voltage Vo from a second terminal,
and the third terminal connected to ground

 The series 78XX regulators are the three-terminal devices that provide a fixed
positive output voltage.
 Voltage Regulators
Fixed voltage regulators

• C1 is to reduce Inductive effects

• C2 is to improve Transient effects
 Voltage Regulators
Fixed voltage regulators

 An unregulated input voltage Vi is filtered by a capacitor C1 and connected to the IC’s

IN terminal.
 The IC’s OUT terminal provides a regulated +12 V, which is filtered by capacitor C2.
 The third IC terminal is connected to ground (GND) .

Positive-Voltage Regulators in the 78XX Series

 Voltage Regulators
Fixed Negative voltage regulators
 The series 79XX regulators are the three-terminal IC regulators that provide a
fixed negative output voltage
 Voltage Regulators
Characteristics

1. Output voltage (or voltage range)

2. Output current
3. Input voltage range
4. Operating temperature range
5. Drop-out voltage

Line regulation
 Line regulation is the ability of the power supply to maintain its specified output voltage over
changes in the input line voltage. It is expressed as percent of change in the output voltage
relative to the change in the input line voltage.

Load Regulation
 Load regulation is the ability of the power supply to maintain its specified output voltage
given changes in the load. This does not mean the tolerance applies when there are sudden
changes in load, it means over the permissible load range the regulation can change by this
amount.
 Voltage Regulators
Ripple Rejection

 The ripple rejection ratio is the ratio of the ripple voltage that appears on the output voltage
when the ripple voltage component (noise) is superimposed on the input voltage to the input
ripple voltage.
 The larger this value, the smaller the ripple component that appears in the output.

 The Monolithic regulators has in-built circuits for,

 Over-Current Protection
 Thermal Overload Protection
 Voltage Regulators
Schematic of 7805 IC
 Voltage Regulators
Electrical Characteristics
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Current Source
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Current Source
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Boosting IC Regulator Output Current
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Boosting IC Regulator Output Current
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Boosting IC Regulator Output Current
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Boosting IC Regulator Output Current
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Boosting IC Regulator Output Current
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Boosting IC Regulator Output Current
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Adjustable Voltage Regulator
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Adjustable Voltage Regulator
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Adjustable Voltage Regulator
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Adjustable Voltage Regulator
 Voltage Regulators
7805 as Dual Voltage Supply
 LM340  +15V;
LM320  -15V.
 D1 and D2 to
protect regulator
against Short
Circuit
 D3 and D4 to
provide
protection
against turn on
both the
regulators at the
same time.
 During operation
D3 and D4 are in
reverse biased
condition
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator

Disadvantages of fixed voltage regulator:

1. Do not have the shot circuit

2. Output voltage is not adjustable
These limitations can be overcomes in IC723.

Features of IC723:

1. Unregulated dc supply voltage at the input between 9.5V & 40V

2. Adjustable regulated output voltage between 2 to 3V.
3. Maximum load current of 150 mA (ILmax = 150mA).
4. With the additional transistor used, ILmax upto 10A is obtainable.
5. Positive or Negative supply operation
6. Internal Power dissipation of 800mW.
7. Built in short circuit protection.
8. Very low temperature drift.
9. High ripple rejection.
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator

The simplified functional block diagram can be divided in to 4 blocks.

1. Reference generating block

2. Error Amplifier
3. Series Pass transistor
4. Circuitry to limit the current
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator

1. Reference Generating block:

The temperature compensated Zener diode, constant current source &
voltage reference amplifier together from the reference generating block.
The Zener diode is used to generate a fixed reference voltage internally.
Constant current source will make the Zener diode to operate at affixed
point & it is applied to the Non – inverting terminal of error amplifier. The
Unregulated input voltage ±Vcc is applied to the voltage reference
amplifier as well as error amplifier.
2. Error Amplifier:

Error amplifier is a high gain differential amplifier with 2 input (inverting &
Non-inverting). The Non-inverting terminal is connected to the internally
generated reference voltage. The Inverting terminal is connected to the full
regulated output voltage.
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator

3. Series Pass Transistor:

Q1 is the internal series pass transistor which is driven by the error
amplifier. This transistor actually acts as a variable resistor & regulates the
output voltage. The collector of transistor Q1 is connected to the Un-
regulated power supply. The maximum collector voltage of Q1 is limited to
36Volts. The maximum current which can be supplied by Q1 is 150mA.

4. Circuitry to limit the current:

The internal transistor Q2 is used for current sensing & limiting. Q2 is

normally OFF transistor. It turns ON when the IL exceeds a predetermined
limit.
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator (LOW)
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator (LOW)
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator (HIGH)
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator - with Current Limit Protection
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator - with Current Limit Protection
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator - with Current Foldback
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator - with Current Foldback
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator - with Current Foldback
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator - with Current Boosting
 Voltage Regulators
723 General Purpose Voltage Regulator - with Current Boosting
 Video
amplifier
 Type 733 Video Amplifier:
• Two stage differential input, output
• Wideband video amplifier
• Series shunt feedback(Wide bandwidth with low
phase distortion & high gain stability)
• Emitter follower outputs(High current & low
impedance)
• Memory element drivers, pulse amplifier and
wideband linear gain stages
Pin Diagram
 Features and applications
• 120 MHz bandwidth
• 250 kohm input resistance
• Selectable gains of 10, 100, 400
• No frequency compensation
• High common mode rejection ratio at high frequencies
• Magnetic tape systems,Disk file memories,Thin and thick
film memories,Woven and plated wire memories,Wide
band video amplifiers
 Frequency response
characteristics
• External gain
adjustment(series
feedback in first stage)
• Interconnecting
resistor taps
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