Chapter 3:
Problem Solving and
Reasoning
Learning Objectives
o Compare and contrast inductive and deductive reasoning.
o Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and
arguments made about mathematics and mathematical
concepts.
o Apply the Polya’s four-step in problem solving.
o Organize one’s methods and procedures for proving and
solving problems.
o Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.
Learning Objectives
o Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life.
o Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
o Support the use of mathematics in various aspects and
endeavors in life.
o Affirm honesty and integrity in the application of
mathematics to various human endeavors.
Topic Outline
I. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
II. Intuition, Proof, and Certainty
III. Polya’s Four-Steps in Problem Solving
IV. Problem Solving Strategies
V. Mathematical Problems involving Patterns
IV. Recreational Problems using Mathematics
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is drawing a general
conclusion from a repeated observation
or limited sets of observations of specific
examples.
Given data, then we draw conclusion
based from the frame these data or simply
from specific case to general case.
Conjecture is drawing conclusion using inductive reasoning.
The conjecture may be true or false depending on the
truthfulness of the argument.
Inductive Reasoning
Counterexample if a statement is a
true statement provided that it is true
in all cases and it only takes one
example to prove the conjecture is false.
Example 1: 1 is an odd number.
11 is an odd number.
21 is an odd number.
Thus, all number ending with 1 are odd numbers.
Inductive Reasoning
Example 2: Essay test is difficult.
Problem solving test is difficult.
Therefore, all tests are difficult
Example 3: Mary is a Science teacher.
Mary is blonde.
Therefore, all Science teachers are blonde.
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is
drawing general to specific
examples or simply from
general case to specific
case.
Deductive starts with a
general statement (or
hypothesis) and examines
to reach a specific
conclusion.
Example 4: All birds have feathers.
Ducks are birds.
Therefore, ducks have feathers.
Deductive Reasoning
Example 5: Christopher is sick.
If Christopher is sick, he won’t be able to go to work.
Therefore, Christopher won’t be able to go to work.
Example 6: All Science teachers are blond.
Mary is a Science teacher.
Therefore, Mary is blonde.
Note: Logical reasoning maybe valid but not necessarily true.
Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning
Deductive
Reasoning
General Special
Principle Case
Inductive
Reasoning
Intuition
Mathematical intuition. Intuition is a
reliable mathematical belief without
being formalized and proven directly and
serves as an essential part of
mathematics.
“Intuition” carries a heavy load of mystery
and ambiguity and it is not legitimate
substitute for a formal proof.
Intuitive is being visual and is absent from the rigorous formal
or abstract version.
As a student, you can build and improve
your intuition by doing the following:
a.Be observant and see things visually
towards with your critical thinking.
b.Make your own manipulation on the
things that you have noticed and observed.
c.Do the right thinking and make a
connections with it before doing the
solution.
Illustration
Based on the given picture below, which among
of the two yellow lines is longer? Is it the upper
one or the lower one?
Self- Learning Activity
Now, let us test your intuition. We have here a
set of problems. Make your own conclusion
based on the given problem without solving it
mathematically.
1. Which of the two have the largest value?
103 ; 310
2. Which among of the following has a largest
product?
34 x 12 = ; 21 x 43 = ; 54 x 31=
Proofs
Proof is an inferential argument
for a mathematical statement.
Mathematical argument like
theorems can only be used if it is
already proven.
Axioms may be served as conditions that must be met before
the statement applies.
Proofs are examples of exhaustive deductive reasoning and
inductive reasoning.
Proofs
A mathematical proof demonstrates that a certain statement is
always true in all possible cases.
An unproved proposition that is believed to be true is known
as a conjecture.
If one has a conjecture, the only way that it can safely be sure
that it is true, is by presenting a valid mathematical proof.
Certainty
Mathematics has a tradition and
standard point of view that it provides
certainty.
A correct formulated mathematical
knowledge is forever beyond error and
correction.
Mathematical certainty is an essential defining attribute of
mathematics and mathematical knowledge.
Polya’s Four-Steps in Problem Solving
George Polya (1887-1985) was a
mathematics educator who strongly
believed that the skill of problem solving
can be taught.
He developed a framework known as
Polya’s Four-Steps in Problem Solving.
The process addressed the difficulty of students in problem
solving.
Polya’s Four-Steps in Problem Solving
Step 1: Understand the problem.
Step 2: Devise a plan.
Step 3: Carry out the plan.
Step 4: Look back.
Process of Problem Solving
Mathematical
Original Problem Translate Version of the
Problem
Solve
Check
Solution to the
Interpret Answer to
mathematical
Original Problem
version
Step 1: Understanding the Problem
What is the goal?
What is being asked?
What is the condition?
What sort of a problem is it?
What is known or unknown?
Is there enough information?
Can you draw a figure to illustrate the problem?
Is there a way to restate the problem? In your own words?
Step 2: Devise a Plan
Act it out.
Be systematic.
Work backwards.
Consider special cases.
Eliminate possibilities.
Perform an experiment.
Draw a picture/diagram.
Make a list or table/chart.
Use a variable, such as x.
Step 2: Devise a Plan
Look for a formula/formulas.
Write an equation (or model).
Look for a pattern or patterns.
Use direct or indirect reasoning.
Solve a simple version of the problem.
Guess and check your answer (trial and error).
Step 3: Carry Out the Plan
Be patient.
Work carefully.
Modify the plan or try a new plan.
Keep trying until something works.
Implement the strategy and strategies in Step 2.
Try another strategy if the first one isn’t working.
Keep a complete and accurate record of your work.
Be determined and don’t get discouraged if the plan does not
work immediately.
Step 4: Look Back
Look for an easier solution.
Does the answer make sense?
Check the results in the original problem.
Interpret the solution with the facts of the problem.
Recheck any computations involved in the solution.
Can the solution be extended to a more general case?
Ensure that all the conditions related to the problem are met.
Determine if there is another method of finding the solution.
Ensure the consistency of the solution in the context of the problem.
Problem Solving Strategies
Example 1: Suppose the NCAA basketball
championships is decided on a best of
five series game. In how many diff. ways
can a team win the championships?
Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem.
Many different orders to win the championships.
Team may have won WWW or LLWWW.
Step 2: Devise a Plan.
Make an organized list of all possible orders and ensure
that each of the different orders is accounted for only
once.
Problem Solving Strategies
Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.
Each entry in the list must contain three Ws and may
contain one or two losses.
WWW (Start with three wins)
WWLW (Start with two wins)
WWLLW (Start with two wins)
WLWW (Start with one win)
WLLWW (Start with one win)
WLWLW (Start with one win)
LWWW (Start with one loss)
LWWLW (Start with one loss)
LWLWW (Start with one loss)
LLWWW (Start with two losses)
Problem Solving Strategies
Step 4: Look Back.
Check if the the list contains no duplications.
Includes all possibilities.
Conclude that there are ten (10) different ways in to win
the NCAA championships in the best of 5 games.
Problem Solving Strategies
Example 2: Two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to
thrice the number plus 4. Find the number.
Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem.
Read the question carefully several times.
Look for a number, and let x be a number.
Step 2: Devise a Plan.
Translate: two times the
sum of a number and 3 is 2(x + 3) = 3x + 4
equal to thrice the number
plus 4.
Problem Solving Strategies
Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.
Solve for the value of x,
2(x + 3) = 3x + 4
2x + 6 = 3x + 4
3x – 2x = 6 – 4
x=2
Step 4: Look Back.
If we take two times the sum of 2 and 3, that is the
same as thrice the number 2 plus 4 which is 10, so this
does check.
Thus, the number is 2.
