CHEMISTRY

CHATE MATHEWS
 WHAT IS CHEMISRY
• The study of the particles that make up matter
and the changes the particles can undergo.
 BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
• Analytical, this branch of chemistry investigates what substances
are made of. It helps chemists to identify chemicals that are
present is the sample and measure their quantity
• Biochemistry, this is the field of chemistry that deals with the
study of the chemical nature of the living matter. It investigates
the chemical compounds and energy changes in living system.
• Inorganic is the study of compounds that do not contain carbon
except carbonates.
• Physical Chemistry is the study of physical characteristics of
materials and how they react to each other.
• Organic chemistry is the study of substances that contains
carbon
 IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
AGRICULTURE
• Farmers use fertilizers made from chemical elements such as
nitrogen, phosphorous to improve soil quality.
INDUSTRY
• e.g Mining chemistry is applied in the extraction of metals
such as copper from copper ores.
PLASTICS
• Plastics are made from crude oil or coal.
MEDICINE
In the manufacture of drugs from plants, chemical processes
are used.
 conti
HOME
• e.g detergents and household soaps are designed to
do the best job possible.
• Describe the challenges of chemical industrial activities
• Production of undesired harmful by-products such as
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide carbon dioxide harm
environment.
• How can you demonstrate an appreciation of safety in
the laboratory?
• By following Safety rules in the lab
 The Particulate nature of matter
• Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space
• Classify the basic units of matter
• Atoms ,molecules ,ions
• Classify the states of matter in terms of particle arrangement and
movement
• Solid,>> particles of a solid are closely packed and in constant vibration
in their fixed position
• Liquid>> distance between particle of a liquid are far apart from each
other as compared to the distance between solid particle and move
about randomly
• Gas >> the particles that make up a gas are very far from each other
when compared to the distance of particle in liquids. This is the why
gas is easily compressed.
 The solid

• A solid is a substance which has both a fixed shape and a

fixed volume
• Arrangement of particles: in a solid the particles are very
close to each other and are tightly packed.
• Movement of particles: particles in solids are not free to
move about but can vibrate about their fixed positions.
• Inter-particle distance: the inter-particle distance in solids is
very small
• Inter-particle forces of attraction: the inter-particle forces of
attraction in solids are very strong
 The liquid

• A liquid is a substance which has no fixed shape but has a fixed

volume
• Arrangement of molecules: in a liquid the particles are slightly
close to each other and are loosely packed. The molecules in
liquids slid on each other.
• Movement of particles: molecules in liquids are free to move
about and slide on each other.
• Intermolecular distance: the intermolecular distance in liquids
is slightly larger than that in solids.
• Intermolecular forces of attraction: the intermolecular forces of
attraction in liquids are weaker than that in solids
 The gas

• A gas is a substance which neither has neither a fixed shape

nor a fixed volume.
• Arrangement of molecules: in a gas the molecules very far
away from each other
• Movement of particles: molecules in gases move
continuously and randomly.
• Intermolecular distance: the intermolecular distance in
gases very large.
• Intermolecular forces of attraction: the intermolecular
forces of attraction in gases are very weak.
The states of matter
 Physical change
• A physical change is one in which no new
substances is formed
Chemical change
• A chemical change is one in which a new
substance is formed
Differences between physical and chemical
changes
Physical change
• No new substances formed
• Is reversible e.g ice to water or water to ice
• No absorption release of energy
• Freezing, evaporation, condensation and sublimation are examples
• Mass of the substance remains same
Chemical change
• New substances are formed
• Not reversible by simple means
• Energy is released or absorbed
• Burning is any example (paper to ash)
• Mass of the substance is different from that of the starting substance
 Change of state
• Melting: is the change of state from solid to
liquid. E.g. Changing of ice to water.
• Melting Point: is the temperature at a
substance changes from solid to liquid.
• When a solid is heated, its particles get more
energy and vibrate more. This makes the solid
expand. At the melting point, the particles
vibrate so much that they break away from
their positions. The solid turns liquid.
The process of melting
 Change of states
• Evaporation/Boiling: is the change of state
from liquid to gas. E.g. changing of water to
water vapor
• Boiling Point: is the temperature at which a
substance changes from liquid to gas.
• A volatile liquid is one that evaporates easily.
The process of boiling/evaporation
• When a liquid is heated, its particles get more
energy and move faster. They bump into each
other more often, and bounce further apart.
• This makes the liquid expand. At the boiling
point, the particles get enough energy to
overcome the forces between them. They
break away to form a gas:
The process of boiling/evaporation
Differences between boiling and
evaporation
 Change of state
• Freezing: is the change of state from liquid to solid. E.g.
the changing of water to ice.
• Freezing Point: is the temperature at which a substance
changes from liquid to solid state.
• Sublimation: is the change of state from solid directly to
gas or vice versa without passing through the liquid state.
• Substances which sublime includes:
1. Iodine
2. Ammonium chloride
3. Naphthalene
Condensation: is the change of state from gas to liquid. Egg. The changing of water vapor to water.
 DIFFUSION
• Diffusion is the movement of particles from
the region of higher concentration to the
region of lower concentration of the same
substance down the concentration gradient.
• Diffusion is said to occur only in
• (a) Liquids
• (b) Gas
 EXAMPLES OF DIFFUSION
• 1. Evidence of diffusion of a solid: when a crystal of
potassium manganate(VII) is dropped into water, its
purple colour slowly spreads throughout the liquid
until a uniform purple colour is observed.
2. Evidence of diffusion of a gas: When perfume is
sprayed in one corner of a room, the particles spread
until the scent is distributed in all parts of the room.
3. Evidence of diffusion of a gas: when a few drops of
bromine is put into a gas jar as shown below, the
bromine will vapourise to fill up the gas jar. A gas jar
full of air is then placed on top of the gas jar full of
bromine vapour and the jar lids are removed. The
reddish brown vapour spreads throughout the gas jar
over a period of tme, even though the bromine
vapour is denser than air.
• The particles of bromine moved around randomly
throughout the gas jar. Some bromine particles
moved up from the lower jar into spaces between
the air particles in the upper jar. Likewise, the air
particles would have moved downwards into the
bottom jar until the two different kinds of particles
get evenly mixed up. Hence the uniformity in colour
of the particles is observed in both jars overtime
 Factors which affects the rate of diffusion

Temperature:
• The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of
diffusion. This is due to the fact that particles at a higher
temperature have more kinetic energy and hence are able
diffuse at greater speeds.
• At higher temperature particles move faster hence faster
rate of diffusion.
• At low temperature particles move slower hence the
slower rate of diffusion. Therefore we can state that the
rate of diffusion is directly proportional to temperature.
.
Molecular mass:
• At a given temperature, lighter particles diffuse faster than
heavier particles.
• the bigger the molecular mass the slower the rate of
diffusion. The smaller the mass the faster the rate of
diffusion.
Concentration.
• The higher the difference in concentration the faster the
rate of diffusions. The lower the difference in
concentration of the two substances the lower the rate of
diffusion
Elements, mixtures and compound
Element
• An element is a pure substance which cannot
be split up into two or more other simpler
substances by chemical means
• There are 118 elements which have been
identified, twenty seven of these do no occur
in nature and are made artificially by scientists
they include elements such as curium and
unnilpentium.
• Ninety one of elements occurs naturally and
range from some very reactive gases such as
fluorine and chlorine to gold and platinum
which are unreactive.
 Chemicals symbols of elements
• A chemical symbol of an element is a letter or letters
derived from the name of an element. It represents
one atom of the element
• Each element as an unique symbol consisting of one
or two letters e.g. the symbol for oxygen is O and iron
is Fe
 Classification of elements
• Elements are classified into two major groups
metals and non metals
• Some elements have properties of both
metals and non metals e.g silicon
• GENERAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
• 1. metals have High density, melting and boiling points
• 2. Malleable and ductile
• malleable: can be bent and beaten into different shapes ductile:
can be stretched to form wires
• 3. metals are excellent conductors of electricity and heat
• 4. metals are electropositive – they for positive ions by losing
electrons
• Metals always from positive ions
• 5. metals are sonorous : ability to produce sound when struck
• 6. they are lustrous: they have a shine appearance when polished
• 7. they are solids at room temperature and pressure except
mercury.
•
 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NON METALS

• Dull appearance if solid (non lustrous)

• Low melting and boiling points
• Brittle if solid (easily broken if hammered)
• Poor conductors of heat (except carbon inform
of diamond and graphite
• Poor conductors of electricity
Physical data for some metallic and non
metallic elements
Summary for the properties of metals and
non metals
Some common elements (Latin names) and
their symbols
 Atoms and molecules
• An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take
part in a chemical change
• A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or
compound which exists independently, that is in free state.
• There are groups of molecules
1. Monatomic :consists of single atoms e.g helium, neon and
argon
2. Diatomic: consists of the same element combined
together e.g oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and chlorine.
3. Polyatomic: consists of atoms of different elements
combined together e.g carbon dioxide, water
 Compounds

• Compounds are pure substances which are

formed when two or more elements
chemically combine together.
• Water is a simple compound formed from the
elements hydrogen and oxygen
• This combining of the elements can be
represented by a word equation
• Hydrogen +oxygen = water
Examples of mixtures and compounds
Difference mixture and compound
MIXTURE COMPOUND
It contaiins two or more substances
 Main points of kinetic theory
• The main points of the theory are:
• All matter is made up of tiny, moving particles,
invisible to the naked eye.
• Different substances have different types of particles
(atoms, molecules or ions) which have different sizes.
• The particles move all the time. The higher the
• temperature, the faster they move on average.
• Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter ones
at a given temperature.
THE LABORATORY GLASSWARE AND APPARATUS
• B: PIPETTE: is filled by suction and is used to accurately measure fixed
volumes such as 10 cm3, 20 cm3, 25 cm3 e.t.c.
• A: BURETTE: is used to measure accurately a range of volumes with an
accuracy of 0.1 cm3 and it has a tap used to deliver controlled volumes in
other containers.
• C: MEASURING CYLINDER: is used to measure approximate volumes of
liquids.
• D: CONICAL FLASK: is used for estimating volumes of liquids, storage of
liquids and it is used for carrying out chemical reactions.
• E: FLAT BOTTOMED FLASK: is used for estimating volumes of liquids,
storage of liquids and it is used for carrying out chemical reactions.
• J: ROUND BOTTOMED FLASK: is used for estimating volumes of liquids,
storage of liquids and it is used for carrying out chemical reactions. This
flask is better suited for carrying out chemical reactions involving heating.
• F: BEAKER: is used only for estimating volumes and storage of chemicals.
• G: TEST TUBE: is mainly used for storage of chemical samples and liquids.
• H: TRIPOD STAND AND WIRE GAUZE: are used to provide support when heating
reagents.
• I: BUNSEN BURNER: is used as a source of heat during heating of reagents. Yellow
flame: is produced when the air hole is closed. This flame produces pollutant gas
such as carbon monoxide.
• Blue flame: is produced when the air hole is half open and it is most generally
used.
• Blue – Green Flame: is produced when the air hole is completely open. It is used
for strong heating.
• K: ELECTRONIC BALANCE: is used to measure the mass of chemical samples.
• L: TRIPLE BEAM BALANCE: is used to measure the mass of substances in the
laboratory.
 COLLECTION OF GASES
• The method used to collect a gas depends
entirely on its properties.There are therefore
three methods used to collect a gas
• 1. Upward Delivery
• 2. Downward Delivery
• 3. Downward dispalcement of water.
 UPWARD DELIVERY
• Gases which are less dense than air are best
collected using the upward delivery method which is
sometimes called downward displacement of air.
• Examples of gases collected by this method are :
hydrogen gas and ammonia gas
 DOWNWARD DELIVERY
• Gases which are denser than air are best collected
using the downward delivery method which is also
called upward displacement of air.
• Examples of gases collected by this method are :
hydrogen chloride and carbon dioxide
DOWNWARD DISPLACEMENT OF WATER.

• This method is only suitable for gases whch are

insoluble in water.
• Examples of gases collected by this method are :
hydrogen gas and methane gas
 SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
• A mixture: is a combination of two or more substances which are
physically combned and can only be separated by physical means.
• Examples: i) A mixture of salt and water
• ii) a mixture of sugar and wate
• iii) crude oil which is a mixture of fuels such as petrol, kerosine, diesel
etc.
• A solvent : is a liquid substance in which a solute dissolves. E.g water.
• A solute: is a solid substance which dissolves in a solvent. E.g sugar, salt.
• A solution: is a uniform mixture of a solvent and a solute. E.g salt
solution (mixture of salt and water)
• A solution is called saturated when it can dissolve no more solute, at
• that temperature
• A solution in water is called an aqueous solution
• A mixture contains more than one substance.
The substances are just
• mixed together, and not chemically combined.
For example:
• air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and small
amounts
• A pure substance has a sharp melting point
and fixed density while an impure substance
has melt or boil over a range of temperatures.
FILTRATION
• Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from
a liquid.
• The insoluble solid which remains on the filter paper
is called Residue while the liquid whch passes
through a filter paper is called filtrate
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF FILTRATION
• 1. In domestic water treatment to remove
suspended particles from water.
• 2. Separation of pencilin from yeast.
• CRYSTALLISATION
• Crystallisation is used to separate pure solids
in form of crystals from impurities suspended
in solution.
• Example: mixture of salt, water and impurities
• The main difference between crystallisaton and
evaporation is that in evaporation the entire liquid is
evapotated while in crystallisation only part of the
liquid is evaporated in order to saturate the solution for
crystals to grow. A saturated solution is the one with
the maximum number of solutes which can dissolve in
a solvent.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF CRYSTALLISATION
• 1. In the prepartion of salts such as copper(II) sulphate
• 2. Obtaining pure sugar
• 3. Purification of antibiotics
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF SIMPLE DISTILLATION
• 1. To obtain pure water from sea water.
 EVAPORATION
• If the solid has dissolved in the liquid it cannot
be separated by filtering or centrifuging.
Instead, the solution can be heated so that the
liquid evaporates completely and leaves the
solid behind. The simplest way to obtain salt
from its solution is by slow evaporation as
shown
 DISTILLATION
• Distillation: is a separation technique used to separate
pure liquids from liquids- liquid mixtures by employing
evapoartion and condansation.
• THE TWO TYPES OF DISTILLATION
• 1. Simple distillation
• 2. Fractional distillation

SIMPLE DISTILLATION
• Simple distillation: is a separation technique used to
obtain a pure liquid from a solution of a solid.
SIMPLE DISTILATION
• Water can be obtained from salt water using
this method. The solution is heated in the flask
until it boils. The steam rises into the Liebig
condenser, where it condenses back into
water. The salt is left behind in the flask.
 FRACTIONAL DSTILLATION
• Fractional distillation : is the separation technique used to
separate miscible liquids by using their boiling points. E.g
ethanol and water.
• Miscible liquids: are liquids which do not show any layer of
separation when they are mixed.
• 1. Ethanol-water mixture
• 2. Petrol-kerosine mixture
• 3. Crude oil.
• The liquid with the lowest boiling point will always be distilled
first. In the mixture of ethanol with boiling point (78°C) and
water with boiling point (100°C), ethanol will be distilled first.
• If miscible liquids are to be separated, then this can be done by
fractional distillation. The apparatus could be used to separate a
mixture of ethanol and water.
• Fractional distillation relies upon the liquids having different boiling
points. When an ethanol and water mixture is heated the vapours of
ethanol and water boil off at different temperatures and can be
condensed and collected separately.
• Ethanol boils at 78 °C whereas water boils at 100 °C. When the
mixture is heated the vapour produced is mainly ethanol with some
steam.
• Because water has the higher boiling point of the two, it condenses
out from the mixture with ethanol.
• This is what takes place in the fractionating column.
• The water condenses and drips back into the flask while the ethanol
vapour moves up the column and into the condenser, where it
condenses into liquid ethanol and is collected in the receiving flask as
the distillate.
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

• 1. Separation of liquid air into oxygen,

nitrogen and other useful gases
• 2. Separation of crude oil into petrol, kerosine,
diesel and other useful products.
• 3. Separation of fermented liquor into ethanol
and water.
 CHROMATOGRAPHY
• Chromatography: is a separation technique used separate to
• 1. Identify a substance
• 2. Determine the purity of a substance
• 3. Separate two or more substances with different solubilites in
the same solvent.
• Its is used mainly to separate dissolved solids such as dyes and
pigments by using their solubility in a solvent.
• The main principals of chromatography are
• 1. Different substances have different solubilities in the same
solvent
• 2. The more soluble substance will get carried further by the
solvent ahead the less soluble ones.
• There are two types of paper
chromatography. And these are ascending
and descending order
• FACTORS AFFECTING CHROMATOGRAPHY
• 1. The separating or stationary media used
• 2. The surface tension of the solvent
• 3. The viscosity of the solvent.

• Steps for carring out chromatography:

• 1. Use a pencil and not ink to draw the start line on the paper
because the ink from a pen contains dyes which can also elute or
separate and complicate the chromatogram
• 2. Place the filter paper in the solvent with a start line and spot of
sample slightly above the solvent level. If the startline is below the
solvent level, the spot of mixture may dissolve into the solvent
instead of travelling up the chromatography paper.
• 3. The beaker must be covered when the chromatography is being
carried out in order to reduce evaporation of the solvent from the
beaker and from the paper.
 RESULTS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
• The piece of paper used in chromatograph
which shows the results of separation is called
chromatogram.
• The chromatogram can be summarised as
follows:
• 1. Ink X has 4 dyes whereas Y has only 3.
• 2. Ink X and Y are made up of 2 common dyes.
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF
CHROMATOGRAPHY
• 1. Separating amino acids from proteins
• 2. Separating antibiotic drugs from their
growing media
• 3. Separating pigments from plants.
• 4. Indentifying the flavouring components in
foodstuff.
MAGNETIC SEPARATION
• Magnetic separation: is the separation technique
used to separate magnetic materials from non
magnetic materials.
• e.g mixture of iron fillings and sulphur powder.
• Also iron fillings from sawdust
• DECANTATION/ SEDIMENTATION
• This is the separation technique used to separate
insoluble solids from a liquid mainly by allowing the
mixture to settle so that the solids settle to the
bottom while the liquid is poured off or decanted.
E.g. mixture of mealie meal and water.
 SEPARATING FUNNEL.
• A separating funnel is a separating technique used to
separate immiscible liquids. The immiscible liquids are liquids
which show layers of separation between them because they
don‟t mix. E.g cooking oil and water.
A separating funnel is a piece of apparatus
which is used to separate mixutures of liquids
which do not mix completely (immiscible
liquids)
The denser liquid forms the lower layer and is
drained off first. The remaining liquid can then
be transferred into another container.
 Floatation
• This method of separating mixtures is used
when one component of a mixture is denser
than the liquid and the other is less dense
than the liquid. Sawdust being less dense will
float and copper turnings being denser will
sink
• CENTRIFUGATION
• Centrifugation is the separating technique used to separate small
suspended solids from a mixture with a liquid which cannot be effectively
separated by filtration. During centrifugation, the mixture is put in a test
tube which is mounted on a rotor of a centrifuge. The mixture is then span
or rotated at high speed to allow the solids to settle down while the liquid
remains on top.
• It is usually used when the solid particles are so small that they spread out
(disperse) throughout the liquid and remain in
• suspension. e.g separation of blood into the liquid part and the solid part
• The pure liquid can be decanted after the solid
has been forced to the bottom of the tube.
This method of separation is used extensively
to separate blood cells from blood plasma In
this case, the solid particles (the blood cells)
are flung to the bottom of the tube, allowing
the liquid plasma to be decanted.
 THE PERIODIC TABLE
• The periodic table is a table of elements arranged in
strict order of their atomic numbers
• The horizontal rows are called periods while the
vertical columns are called groups. There are 7
periods and 8 groups in the periodic table.
• In each group the elements exhibit similar chemical
and physical properties because they have similar
electronic structures. Elements in the same group
form ions with same formula and have the same
number of outer electrons.
• There is a change in each period from metallic to non
metallic character as one moves from the left to the
right of the periodic table. This means that all the
elements on the left of the periodic table are metals
while those on the right are non-metals.
• The elements in the periodic table are arranged based
on the following guidelines.
• 1. The number of electrons in the outer most shell of
an atom of any element determines the group.
• 2. The number of shells determines the periods
• For example: calcium has electronic structure 2,8,8,2.
Since there are 2 electrons in its outermost shell,
calcium must be put in GROUP 2 and since it has 4
SHELLS it must be in PERIOD 4.
• Hydrogen is placed between the group 1 and
group 7 of the periodic table mainly because
hydrogen can form a single positive charge by
losing one electron like the elements in group
1 and can form a single negative charge by
gaining one electron like the elements in
group 7.
 GROUP 1: The alkali metals
• The elements in group 1 are called alkali
metals because they form oxides which when
dissolved in water form solutions which are
highly alkaline or caustic. These elements
include lithium, sodium and potassium.
• Physical Properties of the group 1 metals.
• 1. They all have one electron in the outermost shell of their
atoms e.g Li(2,1) Na(2,8,1) and K(2,8,8,1)
• 2. They are very soft and silvery metals which can easily be
cut with a razor blade
• 3. They have low melting and boiling points
• 4. They have low densities and can even float on water
• 5. They are good thermal and electrical conductors
• Chemical properties
• 1. They are the most reactive metals in the periodic table
• 2. They are stored under oil because they react vigorously
with water and air [their reaction with water is highly
exothermic and can even cause a fire ]
• 3. Their reactivity increases with increase in the atomic
numbers down the group.
• They burn in oxygen to produce oxides
• Metal + oxygen → metal oxide
• (i) 4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)
• (ii) 4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
• (iii) 4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)
• 5. They also react with water to produce metal Hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
• Metal + water →metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
• (i) 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH (aq) + H2(g)
• (ii) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g)
• (iii) 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2(g)
• 6. Group 1 metals burn in chlorine with a bright flame to
produce chlorides
• 2Na (s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
• GROUP 2 Alkaline Earth Metals
• The group 2 elements are called alkaline earth metals
because they form oxides which are slightly soluble in
water and form alkaline solutions. They are also found
on the earth‟s surface. These metals include beryllium,
magnesium and calcium
• Physical properties
• 1. They all have 2 electrons in the outermost shell of
their atoms e.g Be(2,2), Mg(2,8,2) and Ca(2,8,8,2)
• 2. They have slightly higher melting and boiling points
than the elements in group 2
• 3. They high densities
• 4. They are good thermal and electrical conductors
• Chemical properties
• 7. They are also reactive metals but not as
reactive as the elements in the sodium family
• 8. Their reactivity increases with increase in
the atomic numbers down the group.
• 9. They burn in oxygen to produce oxides
• Metal + oxygen → metal oxide
• (iv) 2Be(s) + O2(g) → 2BeO(s)
• (v) 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
• (vi) 2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)
• 10. They also react with water to produce metal
Hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The only exception which
only reacts with hot water (steam)
• Metal + water →metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
• (i) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)
• (ii) Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)
• GROUP 7 : The halogens
• The non-metallic elements in group 7 of the periodic
table are called the halogens. The halogens are also
sometimes called the „salt markers‟. These include
fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine.
• Physical properties
• 1. They have 7 electrons in the outermost shell of
their atoms e.g F(2,7) and Cl(2,8,7)
• 2. They are the most reactive non-reactive metals
which are never found in Free State in nature.
• 3. They exist as diatomic molecules e.g F2, Cl2, Br2,
I2 and At2
• 4. The first two are gases, the third is a liquid while
the rest are solids at room temperature
• 5, They are non metals with very low melting and boiling
points
• 6. They are poor conductors of both heat and electricity
• 7 Their densities, melting and boiling points increase with
increase in atomic numbers down the group.
• 8. Their colours increase in intensity down the group
• They react with group one metals to form salts
• 2Na (s) + Cl2(g) →2NaCl(s)
• 3. They undergo displacement reactions with other halide
ions. The most reactive halogen can displace the less
reactive halogen from its compound
• Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
• Cl2(g) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
• F2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KF(aq) + Br2(aq)
• Br2(g) + 2KI(aq) → 2KBr(aq) + I2(aq)
• Use of halogens
• 1. Fluorine is used in toothpaste to help prevent tooth decay
• 2. Chlorine is put in tap water to kill germs and bacteria
• 3. Iodine is put in table salt to help prevent a condition
called goitre.
• GROUP 8 : The noble gases
• The group O elements are called the noble gases because they are
generally uncreative- they are chemically stable. They are inert as they
have a full outermost shell. These include Helium, neon and argon
• General properties
• 1. They all have 8 electrons in the outermost shell except Helium e.g
He(2), Ne(2,8) and Ar(2,8,8)
• 2. They have very low melting and boiling points
• 3. They are all colourless gases
• 4. They are poor thermal and electrical conductors
• 5. They exist as monatomic molecules. e.g He, Ne, Ar
• Use of noble gases.
• 1. Helium is used to fill hot air balloons due to its low density.
• 2. Argon is widely used in light bulbs and street lamps to create an inert
atmosphere
• 3. Neon is used in advertising signs as it glows red when electricity is
discharged through it.
• TRANSITION ELEMENTS
• The transition elements form part of the
periodic table between Group IIA and group IIIA
of the periodic table.
• They are also called Heavy metals. These include
Zinc, Copper, Manganese, iron, Lead e.t.c
• General Properties
• 1. They have extremely high densities
• 2. They have high melting and boiling points
• 3. They are strong and hard metals
• 4. They form coloured compounds
6. They are not as reactive as the group 1 and II
elements
7. They are good catalysts in many chemical
reactions
8. They often form strong alloys among each
other
• Use of transition elements
• 1. Due to high melting and boiling point, tungsten is used to
make filaments in electric bulbs
• 2. They are used for making alloys e.g steel
• 3. They are used as catalysts e.g iron in the manufacture of
ammonia
• 4. They are used for making machine parts due to their
hardness
• SEMI METALS (MATALLOIDS )
• Semi metals are elements in the periodic table which exhibit
both metallic and non-metallic character
• They are widely used for making computer chips
• A chemical bond is formed when atoms of elements combine
together. Atoms combine differently to form bonds. The three most
important types of bonding are Electrovalent, covalent and metallic
bonding.
• Electrovalent or ionic bonding
•  Ionic bonding is the type of bonding which involves the transfer of
electrons from a metal to a non metal. It is only possible for this type
of bond to occur between Metals and non metals because naturally
metals are electron donors while non metals are electron accepters.
When a metal donates electrons it acquires a positively charged ion
while non metals accept the donated electrons and form negatively
charged ions. These oppositely charged ions attract each other
through strong electrostatic van der Waal‟s forces of attraction and
form ionic bonds
• Dot and cross diagrams
• 1. Sodium Chloride ; NaCl
• Sodium(2,8,1) donates one electron to
chlorine(2,8,7) ,forming Na+ and Cl – ions
respectively. The oppositely charged ions
attract each other by electrostatic forces of
attraction forming an ionic bond
• 2. Magnesium oxide, MgO
• Magnesium (2,8,2) donates two electron to
oxygen (2,6) ,forming Mg2+ and O2 – ions
respectively. The oppositely charged ions
attract each other by electrostatic forces of
attraction forming an ionic bond.
• Magnesium chloride, MgCl2
• Magnesium (2,8,2) donates one electron to
each of the two atoms of chlorine
(2,8,7) ,forming Mg2+ and Cl– ions
respectively. The oppositely charged ions
attract each other by electrostatic forces of
attraction forming an ionic bond.
• Crystalline lattice of ionic compounds
• Sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and calcium chloride are
all ionic compounds. They are formed purely between metals
and non metals. In these compounds the oppositely charged
ions attract each other by electrostatic van der Waal‟s forces
of attraction and result in strong electrostatic ionic lattice. In
the crystal lattice of sodium chloride, sodium ion (Na+) is
centrally positioned and is bonded to six chloride ions (Cl–).
• 1. Sodium chloride crystal lattice
• CHARACTERISTICS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
• 1. Ionic compounds are formed between
metals and non metals and involve the
transfer of electrons from one atom to
another
• 2. All ionic compounds conduct electricity in
molten or aqueous state
• 3. Ionic compounds are soluble in water
• 4. They have high melting and boiling point
• 5. They are non volatile
• COVALENT BONDING
• Covalent bonding is the type of bonding formed by sharing
electrons between two non metallic atoms. Each bonding
atom contributes an equal number of electrons to the
shared pairs. There are various types of covalent bonding,
but the most common and obvious ones are:
• 1. Single covalent bonding:
• Single covalent bonding occurs when each bonding atom
contributes one electron to the shared pair.
• (a) Hydrogen gas ; H2
• (b) Water, H2O

• (c) Methane gas, CH4

• Double covalent bonding
• Double covalent bonding occurs when each
bonding atom contributes two electrons to
the shared pairs.
• (a) Carbon dioxide, CO2
• Triple covalent bonding
• Triple covalent bonding occurs when each
bonding atom contributes three electrons to
the shared pairs.
• (a) Nitrogen gas, N2
• CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS
• 1. Covalent compounds are strictly formed
between atoms of non metals and involve the
sharing of electrons
• 2. All covalent compounds are cannot conduct
electricity in any physical state
• 3. They have very low melting and boiling points
because the intermolecular forces of attraction
between molecules are very weak
• 4. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic
solvents
• 5. They are highly volatile
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
• ACIDS:
• An acid; is a chemical substance which when dissolved in water gives
hydrogen as the only positively charged ion.
• The presence of an acid can only be determined by the presence of H+ ions
• Classification of acids
• Acids are classified into two classes and these are mineral and organic acids
• Inorganic or Mineral acids: are artificial acids made from the combination
of mineral substances and are mainly found in the laboratory.
• Examples of mineral acids
• 1. Hydrochloric acid ………HCl
• 2. Sulphuric acid ……………H2SO4
• 3. Nitric acid ………………….HNO3
• Organic acids: are acids obtained from natural sources such as food staffs
• Examples of organic acids
• 1. Ethanoic acid ………….CH3COOH in vinegar
and tomato juice
• 2. Citric acid – found in citrus foods like
lemons, oranges and grapefruit
• 3. Lactic acid – found in sour milk and yoghurt,
and in muscle respiration
• 4. Tartaric acid – found in grapes
• 5. Formic acid – found in bee stings
• Strength of an acid
•  The strength of an acid depends on the concentration H+ ions it
produces in solution
•  The more hydrogen ions an acid produces in solution, the stronger
the acid is.
•  The instrument used to measure the potential of hydrogen ions in
solution is called pH meter.
•  pH is the measure of how acidic or alkaline the solution is.
•  The pH meter runs from 1 to 14. pH 7 indicates neutral media. All
pH values below 7 indicate acidic media while those above 7 indicate
alkaline media.
•  Note that the higher the concentration of H+ ions in solution, the
lower the pH value and the
• TYPES OF ACIDS
• There are two types of acids and these are strong and weak acids
Strong acids:
• A strong acid is one that is completely ionized in water or aqueous
solution
• e.g 1. Sulphuric acid ……………………………………….H2SO4 (aq) → 2H+
(aq) + SO4 2– (aq)
• 2. Hydrochloric acid ……………………………….. HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl–
(aq)
• 3. Nitric acid ………………………………………………… HNO3 (aq) → H+ (aq)
+ NO3 – (aq)
• A weak acid is one that is only partially ionized in water or aqueous
solution. The ionization of most weak acids is reversible. A
reversible reaction: is a reaction which can either proceed to the
product or reactant side depending on the equilibrium conditions
available.
• Dilute acid: solution containing small amount
of acid dissolved in water concentrated acids:
solution containing large amount of acid
dissolved in water
• Physical properties acids
• 1. Acids have a sour taste
• 2. Acids have pH below 7
3. Acids turn blue litmus paper red
• Indicators and pH values
• The universal indicator solution shows a rainbow of
colours in neutral, acidic or alkaline media. These
colours include ROYGBV i.e Red, orange, yellow,
green, blue and violet. The green colour indicates
neutral media (pH 7), all colours on the left (red,
orange and yellow) indicate acidic media while
those on the left (blue, violet) indicate alkaline
media.
OTHER INDICATORS
• Chemical properties of acids.
• There are three characteristic chemical reactions of acids and these are:
• 1. Acids react with fairly reactive metals to produce a salt and hydrogen gas. Hydrogen
gas burns with a „pop‟ sound.
• Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
• Ca(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
• Mg(s) + 2HCl(s) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
• (No reaction with metals below hydrogen in the electrochemical series)
• 2. Acids undergo neutralization reactions with bases (oxides and hydroxides) to
produce a salt and water only.
• Base(hydroxide) + acid → salt + water
• 1. 2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
• 2. NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)
• Base(oxide) + acid → salt + water
• 1. CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
• 2. CaO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
• 3. Acids react with carbonates to produce a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
• Carbonate + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide
• 1. CaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
• 2. ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → Zn(Cl)2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
• Ionic equations
• Rules
• 1. Complete the given equation and balance it carefully
• 2. Indicate state symbols i.e (g) for a gas, (s) for a solid, (l) for a liquid and (aq) for
aqueous substances or substances which are soluble in water.
• 3. Ionize the terms in the equation by using the following guidelines:
• (a) The solid products shall not be ionized
• (b) All free or uncombined elements shall not be ionized
• (c) All molecules be it liquids or gases shall not be ionized.
• (d) The solid compound on the reactant side must be ionized.
• 4. Get rid of spectator ions or ions existing on both sides of the equation.
• Example
• 1. Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas

• Ca(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4 (aq) + H2(g)

• Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO42– (aq) → Ca2+(aq) + SO42– (aq) + H2(g)

• Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)

• Bases
• A base is a chemical substance which reacts with an acid to
produce a salt and water only. Bases are usually metal oxides or
metal hydroxides
• Examples of bases
• 1. Sodium hydroxide ….NaOH
• 2. Sodium oxide …………Na2O
• 3. Potassium hydroxide…KOH
• 4. Potassium oxide ………K2O
• 5. Calcium hydroxide ….Ca(OH)2
• 6. Ammonia……………NH3
• 7. Ammonium hydroxide ….NH4OH
• An alkali is a soluble base. All soluble bases are alkalis.
•  Not all bases are soluble. Most bases of group 1 metals are
alkalis while those of group two elements are either slightly
soluble or insoluble.
•  Bases containing transition metals or group three metals are
usually insoluble in water.
•  The AMASOPO bases are alkalis i.e Ammonium hydroxide,
sodium and potassium (hydroxide, oxide) are soluble.
• Physical Properties of bases(alkalis)
• 1. Bases have a bitter taste and feel soapy to a
touch
• 2. Bases have a pH above 7 or between 8 and
14
• 3. Bases turn red litmus paper blue
Chemical properties of bases
• There are two characteristic reactions of bases. These are
• 1. Bases undergo neutralization reactions with acids to
produce salt and water only. A neutralization reaction is the
reaction between a base and an acid to produce a salt and
water.
• Base(hydroxide) + acid → salt + water
• NaOH (aq) + HNO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + H2O(l)
• Mg(OH)2 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
• Base(oxide) + acid → salt + water
• ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
• CaO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
• 2NH3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → (NH4) 2SO4 (aq)
• 2. Bases react with ammonium salts to produce a salt, water
and ammonia gas
• Base(alkalis) + ammonium salt → salt + water + ammonia gas
• Soil acidity
• Crops grow well in a nearly neutral soil with
the pH between 6.5 and 8.5. If the soil is acidic
a base is added to neutralize the acid in the
soil. Most farmers use solid calcium hydroxide
(slaked lime) to neutralize acidic soil. This is
because slaked lime is only slightly soluble in
water and thus does not make the soil any
more alkaline.
• Salts
• A salt is a substance formed when hydrogen in
an acid is wholly or partially replaced by a
metal. Most salts are named after the acids
from which they are formed.
• Classification of salts
• Salts are classified as Normal and acidic salts.
• A normal salt: is a salt formed when all the hydrogen
atoms in an acid are replaced by a metal.
• e.g 1. Sodium chloride NaCl
• 2. copper(II) sulphate CuSO4
• An acidic salt is a salt formed when only part of the
hydrogen atoms in an acid are replaced by a metal. An
acidic salt still contains hydrogen atoms in its molecule.
• e.g. 1. Calcium hydrogen sulphate Ca(HSO4)2
• 2. sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3
• Preparation of salts
• The method used to prepare a salt depends entirely on its
solubility in water.
• SOLUBILITY RULES:
• 1. All AMASOPO (Ammonium, sodium and potassium) salts are
soluble
• 2. All nitrates are soluble
• 3. All sulphates are soluble except BACALES i.e Barium, calcium,
lead and silver sulphates
• 4. All chlorides are soluble except LES i.e Lead and silver chlorides
• 5. All carbonates are insoluble except AMASOPO i.e ammonium,
sodium and Potassium carbonates
• Preparation of insoluble salts
•  Insoluble salts are prepared by the process known as precipitation
•  Precipitation is the method used to prepare an insoluble salt from two soluble
salts
•  The solid product produced during precipitation is called precipitate(ppt).
•  A double decomposition reaction occurs during precipitation. This means that
ions are exchanged between salts.
•  Some of the insoluble salts prepared by precipitation include
• 1. Barium sulphate BaSO4
• 2. Calcium sulphate CaSO4
• 3. Lead (II) sulphate PbSO4
• 4. silver sulphate Ag2SO4
• 5. Lead (II) Chloride PbCl2
• 6. silver Chloride AgCl
• 7. Lead (II) iodide PbI2
• Mechanism of preparing an insoluble salt
•  During precipitation the two starting materials are
SOLUBLE salts.
•  One of the two salts contains the Cation (positive
ion) of the salt to be prepared while the other
contains the Anion (negative ion) of the same salt.
•  The choice of soluble salts is made simple by the
use of AMASOPO (ammonium, sodium and
potassium ) salts and nitrates because all these salts
are always soluble.
• For instance, if we are asked to prepare
barium sulphate, BaSO4. We need to
separate the two ions i.e Barium and
sulphate. To barium we add a nitrate to make
a soluble Barium Nitrate while to sulphate
we can add sodium to make soluble sodium
sulphate
• Ba(NO3)2 Na2SO4 BaSO4(s) NaNO3
• Examples
• 1. Preparation of lead (II) iodide, PbI2

• Starting materials:
• (a) Lead(II) nitrate; Pb(NO3)2
• (b) Potassium iodide; KI

• Equation
• Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
• Preparation method:
•  The solution of lead(II) nitrate is added t the solution of potassium iodide.
The precipitate (Lead(II) iodide) is filtered and removed. The precipitate is
washed with distilled water and dried between pieces of filter paper.
• Preparation of soluble salts
•  There are two methods used to prepare insoluble salts and these are
• (a) Crystallization
• (b) Titration

• Crystallization
•  Crystallization is the method used to prepare all soluble salts except (AMASOPO) salts.
•  This method involves the following three reactions
• (a) Action of acids on a fairly reactive metal
• (b) Action of acid on an insoluble base
• (c) Action of acid on an insoluble carbonate
•  One important fact to remember is that during the preparation of a soluble salt using this
method is that one of the starting materials must be an acid.

• Example:
• Preparation of copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4
• Starting materials:
• (a) Copper(II) Oxide, CuO
• (b) Sulphuric acid, H2SO4
• Equation
• CuO (s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
• Method of preparation
•  The copper(II) oxide powder is continuously added to dilute
sulphuric acid whilst stirring until the oxide is in excess. The excess
oxide is then filtered off. The salt solution is then
heated(evaporated) until a saturated solution is obtained. The
saturated solution is cooled to grow salt crystals. The crystals are
then filtered, washed and dried between two pieces of filter paper.
• Titration:
• Titration is the method used to prepare a soluble salt from the
reaction between an acid and a an alkalis
•  One important condition for this method is that one of the
starting materials is a dilute acid while the other is a soluble base.

•  Only AMASOPO (Ammonium, sodium and potassium) salts are

prepared by titration
•  This method works on the basis of neutralization.
•  Since no solid is involved in this method, the end point of the
reaction can only be determined by the use of indicator solution.
• Example
• Preparation of sodium chloride, NaCl
• Starting materials
• (a) Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
• (b) Dilute Hydrochloric acid, HCl

• Equation
• NaOH(s) +2HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
• Preparation method
•  About 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide of known concentration is pipetted into the conical
flask .Two drops of phenolphthalein are then added to the flask . The burette is filled with
dilute hydrochloric acid. The acid is later delivered from the burette bit by bit into the flask
until the
• pink colour of the indicator changes to colourless. The volume of the acid used is noted. The
solution formed is a neutral solution of sodium chloride. This solution is then heated to
evaporate the water to saturation point. The solution is cooled and crystals are formed. The
pure crystals of sodium chloride are filtered, washed and dried between two filter papers.
• DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS
• 1. The more reactive metals high in the reactivity series can displace weak metals lower in the reactivity series from their
compounds. For instance, zinc can displace copper from all its compounds

• Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

• This explains why copper (II) sulphate solution cannot safely be stored in a zinc container. The copper (II) sulphate solution
can be contaminated with Zinc sulphate produced from the reaction between copper (II) sulphate solution and atoms of zinc
in a zinc container.
• 2. All metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series can displace hydrogen from acids and water. While those metals below
hydrogen cannot displace hydrogen from any compound.

• Zn (s) + H2 SO4(aq)→ ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

• 3. Aluminium though high in the reactivity series does not react with cold water because it forms an oxide layer which
prevents further reactions

• REDUCTION OF METAL OXIDES BY HYDROGEN GAS AND CARBON MONOXIDE

• 1. The removal of oxygen from a substance is called reduction.
• 2. Both hydrogen and carbon monoxide can reduce METAL OXIDES to free METALS and WATER OR CARBON DIOXIDE.
• 3. Note that the oxides of potassium and sodium can NEVER be reduced by either hydrogen gas or carbon monoxide gas.
• 4. Other OXIDES of metals can be reduced to free metals.

•
• METHODS USED FOR PREVENTING RUSTING
• 1. Painting
• 2. Oiling or greasing
• 3. Metal plating – coating iron with a less reactive metal
such as tin (tin – plating) prevents rusting
• 4. Galvanizing – coating iron with a more reactive metal
such as zinc. This is also called sacrificial protection. The
more reactive metal corrodes instead of the iron.

•
• WATER TREATMENT
• Water is purified for both industrial and domestic use.
• The main stages involved in water treatment are:
• 1. Sedimentation
• 2. Filtration
• 3. Chlorination

• Screening:
• The raw water obtained from the rivers is first screened to remove large solid impurities.
• Sedimentation:
• At this stage the coagulating agent called alum (aluminium sulphate) is added to the
water to make the suspended particles stick together into bigger sizes. This is called
coagulation.
• After coagulation, sedimentation takes place in which the solid particles settle to the
bottom of the
•
• sedimentation tank so that they can easily be removed.
• Filtration:
• The water is then filtered to remove all the remaining solid particle. It
is at this stage that activated carbon is added to remove foul odour
from the water. Lime (calcium oxide) is also added to water to
remove acidity.
• Chlorination:
• Chlorine is added to the water in order to kill the germs and bacteria.
• Water Distribution:
• At this stage the water can be distributed in water pipes to consumers
as it is clean and safe to drink but it is not pure. This means that the
water contains mineral salts needed by the human body.
•
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• A chemical reaction can only occur when the particles of the reactants collide
with each other.
•  However, not all collisions will result in the formation of products
•  Therefore, effective collisions are required in a chemical reaction. Effective
collisions only occur when the reactant particles have enough energy to
overcome the activation energy of the reaction and when particles collide in
the correct orientation.
•  Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to make the
reaction take place.
•  The speed of any chemical reaction depends on the number of effective
collisions between reactants.
•  The greater the number of effective collisions, the higher the rate of reaction

•
 FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE RATE OF
CHEMICAL REACTION
• Effect of Particle size.
•  Decreasing the size of reactant particles will increase the speed of reaction. This is
because by breaking the reactant particles, the surface area increases, and this in turn
results in more particles being able to collide more frequently.

• Effect of Pressure.
•  If one of the reactants is a gas, increase in pressure will increase the speed of
reaction. Increasing the pressure brings the reactant particles closer to each other in a
smaller volume, resulting in increased effective collisions.

• Effect of Temperature .
•  Increasing the temperature of the reactants will result in increased speed of reaction.
This is because at high temperatures, the reactant particles will have greater kinetic
energy, resulting in more frequent effective collisions.

•
• Effect of Concentration
•  An increase in the concentration of one or more of the reactants will increase
the speed of reaction. This is due to the fact that increasing the concentration
introduces more particles in a given volume and this results in frequent effective
collisions.

• Effect of Catalyst
•  A catalyst is a chemical substance which alters the rate of chemical reaction
without itself undergoing any chemical change.
•  Addition of a catalyst to a chemical reaction will increase the speed of the
chemical reaction because the catalyst lowers the activation energy of the
reaction. Apart from colliding with each other, the reactant particles can also
collide effectively with the catalyst. This will in turn increase the rate of reaction.

•
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
• Organic chemistry: is the branch of science which studies carbon and its
compounds except carbonates and oxides.
•  The food we eat, plastics, rubber, drugs and detergents are all organic comounds.
•  Carbon has a tendency of forming covalent bonds with other carbon atoms. Apart
from bonding with its own kind, carbon also forms covalent bonds with other
elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. Organic chemistry,
however, is centered on compounds of carbon and hydrogen.
• Hydrocarbons
• Hydrocarbons : are organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen only.
• These include:
• 1. Alkanes
• 2. Alkenes
• 3. Alkynes

•
• Homologous series
• A homologous series: is a group of organic compounds having the
same general formula, functional group and chemical properties.
• Examples of Homologous series
• 1. Alkanes
• 2. Alkenes
• 3. Alkynes
• 4. Alcohols
• 5. Carboxylic acids
• 6. Esters

•
• Characteristics of a homologous series
• 1. All the members conform to the same general formula.
• 2. Each member of the homologous series differs from the next by - CH2
• 3. Members of the homologous series have the same chemical properties
• 4. They have the same functional group.
• 5. Their physical properties such as melting and boiling points increase with increase in the
number of carbon atoms.

• Functional Groups
•  A functional group: Is the special group of atoms available in homologous series compounds
which is responsible for the chemical properties of the compound.
•  All compounds in homologous series have functional groups except alkanes

•
• NOMENCLATURE
• Nomenclature: refers to system of naming
organic compounds.
•
• ALKANES.
•  Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with a general
formula CnH2n+2.
•  n represents the number of carbon atoms.
•  Saturated hydrocarbons: are hydrocarbons with
single bonds between carbon atoms
•  alkanes have no functional group though sometimes
the C – C is considered as a functional group for alkanes

•
ELEMENTS, MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

• A mixture contains more than one substance.

The substances are just
• mixed together, and not chemically combined.
For example:
•  air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and
small amounts