PSY 101: Introduction to Psychology

Lecture:8
Chapter 8: Human Development

Ms. Ashma Rahman

Lecturer
Department of History and Philosophy
The Discussion will focus on
• Understanding the concept of Human Development
• Periods of Development
• Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth
• Socio-behavioral and cognitive development in Infancy and
Childhood
Understanding the concept of Human
Development
• Human development refers to the biological and psychological development of
the human being throughout the lifespan. It consists of changes that follow an
orderly pattern that moves from simple toward greater complexity and
enhances survival.
• E.g., The development of our language capacity. We started to develop our language capacity by making
some sounds (called babbling) at 5 or 6 months. Then these meaningless sounds later became more
shaped by following some orderly pattern ( these sounds became single words), and finally, we mastered a
complex skill of language.
• Development involves three major domains; physical, cognitive, and social/emotional demine, and growth
in one part influences the other.
 Areas of Human Development

• Physical Domain includes:

• Body size, body proportions, appearance, brain development, motor
development, and physical health
• Cognitive Domain includes:
• Thought processes and intellectual abilities, including attention, memory,
problem-solving, imagination, creativity, academic and everyday knowledge,
and language.
• Social/Emotional Domain includes:
• Self-knowledge (self-esteem, sexual identity, ethnic identity), moral
reasoning, understanding and expression of emotions, self-regulation,
temperament, understanding of others, interpersonal skills, and friendships.
 Principles of Development
• The development follows an orderly pattern. E.g., we learn to sit, crawl, stand,
and take small steps.
• Development is a continuous process. It will end when a person dies. It continues
positively till the end of middle adulthood; then, it proceeds in a negative
direction. That is why our grandparents all physical, mental, and socio-emotional
capacities are declining.
• Development has a predictable sequence. E.g., when a child is at the crawling
stage, we can say that next, it will try to stand up by holding something.
• Don’t progress at the same rate; it proceeds more rapidly during the early
years(till adolescence).
• Not all body parts grow at the same rate at the same time.
• Each child grows uniquely, indicating vast individual differences. (differences
between identical twins)
 Principles of Development
• Each stage of development is affected by the product in the preceding
steps. e.g., development stages are interrelated. If any child doesn’t
crawl at the right location, its ability to walk will also appear late.
• There are critical periods for development. e.g., the adolescence
period is the most crucial period for emotional growth.
• Development is a lifelong process.
Periods of Development

• Prenatal period: from conception to birth

• Neonate: birth to 1 month
• Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years
• Early childhood: 2-6 years old
• Middle childhood: 6-12 years old
• Late childhood (Adolescence): 12-18 years old
• Adulthood: above 18 years old
 Prenatal Development

• Conception — when a sperm penetrates the ovum; development

begins at conception.
• Zygote — a fertilized egg; Germinal period — first two weeks after
conception
• Embryonic period — weeks 3 through 8 after conception
• Fetal period — from 9 weeks until birth
• Zygote: When an egg becomes fertilized by the sperm, the resulting
one-celled entity, called a zygote, immediately begins to develop. It
starts as a microscopic speck.
• Three days after fertilization, though, the zygote increases to around
32 cells; within a week, it has grown to 100–150 cells. The first two
weeks are known as the germinal period.
• Embryo: A developed zygote with a heart, a brain, and other organs.
• By four weeks of age, the embryo attains a length of about 1/5 of an
inch, having a heart, a brain, and an intestinal tract (digestive tract)
made up of tiny thread-like vessels.
• By week 8, it is about 1 inch long and has discernible (perceptible)
arms, legs, and a face.
• Fetus: A developing individual from eight weeks after conception until birth.
• Responses to touch, e.g., it bends its fingers when touched the hand.
• At 16 to 18 weeks, the mother can sense its movements; hair may begin to grow on its
head.
• The significant organs begin functioning. The neuron cell of the brain is produced. Mother’s
habits, mental health, and nutrition affect the child’s major body organs at this stage.

• By week 24, a fetus has many characteristics it will display as a newborn. It even
develops the capacity to learn. By 28 weeks, it gains 3 pounds and 16 inches of
length.
• Mother’s habits, mental health, and nutrition affect the child’s mental health at
this stage.
• In the final weeks of pregnancy, the fetus continues to gain weight and grow.
• At the end of the standard 38 weeks of pregnancy, the fetus typically weighs 7 pounds and
is about 20 inches long.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEfnq4Q4bfk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4l9GE_eaMSs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VktZZEeGdSs&t=409s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UA-Tk9qlG9A ( important one )

Genetic Influences on the Fetus
• Problems caused by inherited characteristics as known as genetic disorders. Heredity may pass on to
children serious diseases or physical or mental disabilities. Faulty genes or chromosomes can cause
severe congenital disabilities.
• Phenylketonuria (PKU) -- children can not produce an enzyme required for normal development.
This results in accumulating poisons that cause severe pain when touched.
• Sickle-cell anemia-- Children with the disease may have episodes of pain, yellowish eyes, stunted
growth, and vision problems, mental retardation. It is caused by abnormally shaped red blood cells.

• Tay-Sachs disease-- If both parents carry the genetic defect that produces the fatal illness, their
child has a 1 in 4 chance of being born with the condition. Children usually die by age 3 or 4 because
of the body’s inability to break down fat.

• Down syndrome -- Down syndrome, one of the causes of mental retardation, occurs when the
zygote receives an extra in the 21st pair of the chromosome at the moment of conception. Down
syndrome is often related to the mother’s age; mothers over 35 and younger than 18 stands a
higher risk than other women of having a child with the syndrome (Roizen & Patterson, 2003;
Sherman et al., 2007).
 Prenatal Environmental Influences

Environmental agents or factors related to mothers during pregnancy can

produce a congenital disability. These factors include:
• Mother’s nutritional deficiencies
• Mother’s illness (e.g., diabetic, infection with German measles)
• Mother’s emotional state (e.g., anxiety level)
• Mother’s use of drugs (cocaine, alcohol, nicotine), smoking, and
radiation exposure. These factors are known as teratogens.
Prenatal Environmental Influences
Infancy and Childhood
Development of Social Behavior via Parenting

• A child’s early social development provides the foundation for social relationships
that last a lifetime. This social persona and many more traits develop in a child
based on the nature of parenting they experience. Parenting is a process that
promotes and supports a child's physical, emotional, social, and intellectual
development from infancy to adulthood. A significant thing that occurs through
parenting is Attachment between parents and child.
• Attachment: A positive emotional bond develops between a child and a particular
individual, such as caregivers and parents.
• Attachment between an infant and her caregiver can ensure the infant’s survival.
Attachment sets the base for the infant’s social relationships in the future.
• The main component of parent-child attachment is Warmth, Trust, and a
Balanced amount of control. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IeHcsFqK7So
 Parenting Style
• Parenting Styles shapes the personality of a child. Baumrind in 1991
described about 4 types of parenting style.
1) Authoritarian
2) Permissive
3) Authoritative
4) Neglectful
Authoritarian parents are very rigid and punitive, as they enforce
stringent rules and demand strict obedience to authority. Children
tend to be obedient, unsociable, unfriendly, and relatively withdrawn.

Permissive: Give little, relaxed, and inconsistent guidance. Allow too

much freedom, or don’t hold children accountable for their actions.
Children tend to be dependent, immature, moody, have low self-
control, and frequently misbehave.
Authoritative: Provide firm, consistent, and straightforward guidance
combined with love and affection. These parents set clear goals and
try to reason and explain things to them. Children tend to be
competent, self-reliant, independent, assertive, and cooperative (high
social skills).
Neglectful: Uninvolved or neglectful parents show little interest in their
children and are emotionally detached. They view parenting as
nothing more than providing children with food, clothing, and shelter.
At their most extreme, uninvolved parents are guilty of neglect, a
form of child abuse. Children’s physical and cognitive development is
impeded (hindered).
Authoritative parenting is generally thought to be the best parenting
style.
Some children are naturally easygoing and cheerful (Easy Children),
some are irritable and fussy/pensive (Difficult Children), whereas
others are restrained, unexpressive and shy (Slow-to-Warm-Up
Children). When caring for children, it is essential to identify and
respect their temperaments and to react with sensitivity.
Development of Social Behavior and Emotion
John Bowlby, in 1943, explained how the experience of
attachment during infancy and childhood shapes one’s
emotional base and social behavior.
The quality of marital/romantic relationships of an adult
depends much on their emotional experience with their
primary caregiver.
Experts have identified four types of adult attachment
patterns that depend on the quality of attachment, warmth,
love & care, and control shared between parent and child in
the earlier stage of life.
There are four basic types of adult attachment relationships.
(They relate to the different types of parenting styles)

1. Secure Attachment
2. Insecure Anxious Attachment
3. Insecure Avoidant Attachment
4. Insecure Disorganized Attachment
Attachment is the positive emotional bond between a child and a particular
individual, where one takes care of the other party.
• Infants who develop secure attachments have a sense of security,
safety, optimal self-esteem, and positive self-image.
•
Infants without secure attachments have trouble developing close
relations later, as they lack a sense of security, safety, and optimal
self-esteem and have a negative self-image.
Secure Attachment

Secure attachment is characterized by trust and confidence between parent and child.
During infancy, this relationship provides the children with a secure base to which they
feel a sense of belongingness.
Here, the parents/primary caregivers are attentive, nurturing, loving, and sensitive toward
the child’s needs. The parents here show a consistent pattern of attentiveness and care,
which helps create an optimal level of warmth between parent and child.
As a result, these kinds develop positive insights and approaches for future relationships.
They learn from their experience during infancy that they can rely on the people they are
bonded with and get support from their relationships. As an adult, they value emotional
intimacy and believes in open and honest communication. They trust their partner and
feel secure when it comes to depend on their partner. As they had positive experiences
in infancy, they tend to be undoubtful in their future relationships and foster deep and
meaningful relationships. As a partner, they are supportive, reliable, and always there to
lend a listening ear or helping hand. Usually, these types of attachments form due to an
authoritative parenting style where individuals develop a positive self-image and
confidence for carrying out a healthy relationship. Individuals with a secure attachment
style will have positive thoughts about themselves and others.
Insecure Anxious Attachment
It results when parents are inconsistent and unpredictable in attaining their
kids. The inconsistency manifests in their way of being sometimes available
and attentive and other times neglectful and dismissive. As a result of this
inconsistency, the individual develops a fear of abandonment as they hold a
negative self-image and low self-esteem. This fear causes the individual to
seek reassurance and validation within their romantic relationship; they tend to
worry about the status and security of their relationships, thus overanalyzing
the situation and seeking extra assurance from their partner. In such cases, an
individual with an anxious attachment style suffers from a dilemma where they
genuinely feel a strong desire for the closeness of their partner but also fear
rejection and tend to be overly sensitive to any sign of distance or disinterest
from their partner ( e.g., overreacting when the partner doesn’t receive calls).
They remain anxious as they struggle to trust their partner’s intention and must
always test their partner's commitment. As a result, it creates a challenge to
maintain healthy boundaries in relationships. The permissive parenting style
strongly correlates to the formation of insecure, anxious attachment in
individuals.
Insecure Avoidant Attachment
Here, the parents are emotionally unavailable, as they don't provide emotional
comfort and support; instead, they dismiss the children’s emotional needs and
try to restrict them. The vibrant warmth between parent-child is feeble in such
cases. These experiences in infancy lead the child to become an adult who
believes that emotional closeness and reliance upon others will result only in
disappointment. Consequently, they form a bobble around themselves, keeping
themselves independent and self-reliant to protect their emotional vulnerabilities
so they don’t feel emotionally dismissed by others. As an adult, they feel
suffocated by their partner's emotional intensity and expectation. Any form of
emotional intimacy makes them uncomfortable and urges them to seek
personal space. They always prefer independence over emotional closeness in
a relationship. And they tend to keep their emotion guarded and avoid being too
close to their partner. However, despite having inner conflict, they genuinely
care for their partner and struggle to balance between embracing their
vulnerabilities &independence when it comes to becoming emotionally intimate.
The authoritarian parenting style is found to be correlated with forming this type
of attachment style. Individuals with this type of attachment style tend to have a
Insecure Disorganized Attachment
This kind of attachment forms when a child is emotionally and physically
dependent on someone who is also a source of distress or fear. In such extreme
cases, the primary caregivers are emotionally and physically abusive. For example,
in an extreme case, if a kid’s parents are drug addicts. They may leave the kid alone
at home. They would be careless of the needs of their kids and tend to be punitive
and brutally dismissive whenever the kid expresses their needs. In such cases, the
kid will develop a deep sense of fear, confusion, and disorientation. They often
have childhood trauma that causes them serious problems trusting their partners.
The deep internal conflict these kids experience throughout their childhood makes
it really difficult for them to maintain a healthy relationship. As an adult, their
traumatic experiences manifest in extremely conflicting behavior where they show
a push-pull dynamic to their partner. They can turn out to be abusive partners as
well. In such a situation, individuals can have an extremely positive self-image that
makes them narcissistic and selfish while having generalized negative thoughts
about others (everybody out there is terrible and harmful).
This kind of attachment style is the result of a neglectful parenting style.
Cognitive Development
• Cognitive development: The process by which a child’s understanding
of the world changes due to the child’s age and experience
• Jean Piaget (1970) suggested that children worldwide proceed
through four stages in a fixed order.
• These stages differ in the quantity of information acquired at each
stage and the quality of knowledge and understanding.
• Movement from one stage to the next occurs when a child reaches
an appropriate level of maturation and is exposed to relevant types
of experiences.
• Sensorimotor stage: From birth to 2 years, a child has little competence in
representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols.
• Object permanence: The awareness that objects—and people—continue to
exist even if they are out of sight
• Preoperational stage: The period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized
by language development
• Egocentric thought: A way of thinking in which a child views the world
entirely from his or her own perspective.
• Principle of conservation: The understanding that quantity is unrelated to
objects’ arrangement and physical appearance.
• Concrete operational stage: The period from 7 to 12 years of age that is
characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism
• Formal operational stage: The period from age 12 to adulthood is characterized
by abstract thought.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=IhcgYgx7aAA