Learning and
Transfer of
Training
Chapter 4 6th Edition
Raymond A. Noe
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Objectives
1. Discuss the five types of learner outcomes.
2. Explain the implications of learning theory for
instructional design
3. Incorporate adult learning theory into the
design of a training program
4. Describe how learners receive, process, store,
retrieve, and act upon information
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Objectives
5. Discuss the internal conditions (within the
learner) and external conditions (learning
environment) necessary for the trainee to learn
each type of capability
6. Discuss the implications of open and closed
skills and near and far transfer for designing
training programs
7. Explain the features of instruction and the work
environment that are necessary for learning and
transfer of training
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Introduction
Why Understanding Learning Matters in Training?
The goal of training is to help employees learn and perform better on
the job.
Effective learning requires certain conditions, such as:
• Practice with feedback
• Meaningful content
• Prerequisite knowledge
• Learning through observation and experience
•Learning outcomes must align with job tasks (e.g., customer service,
selling, technical skills).
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Introduction
WHAT IS LEARNING? WHAT IS LEARNED?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in
human capabilities that is not a result of
growth processes. These capabilities are
related to specific learning outcomes.
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Learning Outcomes
Type of Learning Description of Example
Outcome Capability
Verbal information State, tell, or describe State three reasons for
previously stored following company safety
information. procedures.
Intellectual skills Apply generalizable Design and code a
concepts and rules to computer program that
solve problems and meets customer
generate novel products. requirements.
Motor skills Execute a physical actionShoot a gun and
with precision and timing.
consistently hit a small
moving target.
Attitudes Choose a personal course Choose to respond to all
of action. incoming mail within 24
hours.
Cognitive strategies Manage one's own Use three different
thinking and learning strategies selectively to 4-6
Learning Theories
Reinforcement Social Learning
Goal Theories
Theory Theory
Expectancy Adult Learning
Need Theories
Theory Theory
Information
Processing
Theory
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Reinforcement Theory
⚫ Reinforcement theory focuses on the idea that
individuals are motivated to engage in certain
behaviors or avoid them based on the outcomes they
have previously experienced from those behaviors. If
the outcome was positive, the individual is likely to
repeat the behavior; if it was negative, they are likely
to avoid it.
⚫Processes in reinforcement theory
⚫ Positive reinforcement
⚫ Negative reinforcement
⚫ Extinction
⚫ Punishment
⚫ The trainer needs to identify what outcomes the
learner finds most positive and negative
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Reinforcement Theory
⚫ Trainers then need to link these outcomes to
learners acquiring knowledge, skills, or changing
behaviours
⚫ Trainers can withhold or provide job-related,
personal, and career-related benefits to learners
who master program content
⚫ Behavior modification is a training method that is
primarily based on reinforcement theory
⚫ Employees were encouraged to increase the
number of safe behaviors they demonstrated on
the job
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Social Learning Theory
⚫ Emphasizes that people learn by observing other
persons (models) whom they believe are credible
and knowledgeable
⚫ The theory recognizes that behavior that is
reinforced or rewarded tends to be repeated
⚫ Learning new skills or behavior comes from:
- Directly experiencing the consequences of using
a behavior or skill
- The process of observing others and seeing the
consequences of their behavior
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Social Learning Theory
⚫Person’s self-efficacy can be increased
using several methods
• Verbal persuasion
• Logical verification
• Observation of others (modeling)
• Past accomplishments
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Goal Theories
⚫Goal setting theory: Assumes that
behavior results from a person’s conscious
goals and intentions
⚫Goals influence a person’s behavior by:
⚫Directing energy and attention
⚫Sustaining effort over time
⚫Motivating the person to develop strategies for
goal attainment
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Goal Theories
⚫Goal setting theory
• It is used in training program design.
• It suggests that learning can be facilitated
by providing trainees with specific
challenging goals and objectives.
• The influence of goal setting theory can be
seen in the development of training lesson
plans
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Goal Theories
Goal orientation: Goals held by a
trainee in a learning situation
Includes:
Learning orientation: Trying to increase
ability or competence in a task
Performance orientation: Learners who
focus on task performance and how they
compare to others
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Need Theories
⚫Helps to explain the value that a person
places on certain outcomes
⚫Need: A deficiency that a person is
experiencing at any point in time
⚫Maslow’s and Alderfer’s need theories
focused on physiological needs,
relatedness needs, and growth needs
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Need Theories
⚫Suggest that to motivate learning, trainers
should identify trainees’ needs and
communicate how training program
content relates to fulfilling these needs
⚫If certain basic needs of trainees are not
met, they are unlikely to be motivated to
learn
⚫Implication of need theory relates to
providing employees with a choice of
training programs to attend
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Expectancy Theory
⚫It suggests that a person’s behavior is
based on three factors:
⚫Expectancies: Link between trying to
perform a behavior and actually performing
well
⚫Instrumentality: Belief that performing a
given behavior is associated with a
particular outcome
⚫Valence: Value that a person places on an
outcome
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Expectancy Theory of Motivation
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Adult Learning Theory
⚫Was developed out of a need for a specific
theory of how adults learn
⚫Andragogy: Theory of adult learning
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Adult Learning Theory
⚫Assumptions of the theory
⚫Adults have the need to know why they are
learning something
⚫Adults have a need to be self-directed
⚫Adults bring more work-related experiences
into the learning situation
⚫Adults enter a learning experience with a
problem-centered approach to learning
⚫Adults are motivated to learn by both
extrinsic and intrinsic motivators
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Implications of
Adult Learning Theory for Training
Design Issues Implications
Self-concept Mutual planning and collaboration
in instruction
Experience Use learner experience as basis for
examples and applications
Readiness Develop instruction based on the
learner’s interests and
competencies
Time Perspective Immediate application of content
Orientation to learning Problem-centered instead of
subject-centered 4-21
Information Processing
Theory
• Information processing theory emphasizes
the internal cognitive processes that occur
when a learner receives and retains
training content.
• learning begins when environmental stimuli such
as sounds, images, or tactile inputs are received
by the body’s sensory receptors (ears, eyes,
skin, etc.) and registered in short-term memory.
• These inputs are then encoded and transferred
to long-term memory for storage.
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Information Processing
Theory
• A mental search process retrieves relevant
information and organizes an appropriate
response, which is executed through the muscles
based on the type of learning outcome
(cognitive skills, verbal knowledge, motor
actions, intellectual capabilities, or attitudes)
• Feedback from the environment, either external
(from others) or internal (self-observed), helps
evaluate the response. Positive feedback
reinforces the behavior, enhancing the likelihood
of retention and recall in future similar
situations.
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Figure 4.4 – A Model of Human
Information Processing
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Transfer of Training Theory
⚫Transfer of training is more difficult when
tasks during training are different from the
work environment
⚫Closed skills: Training objectives that are
linked to learning specific skills that are to
be identically produced by the trainee on
their job
⚫Open skills: Linked to more general
learning principles
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The Learning Process:
Mental and physical
processes
⚫ Expectancy: Mental state that the learner
brings to the instructional process
⚫Perception: Ability to organize the
message from the environment so that it
can be processed and acted upon
⚫Working storage: Rehearsal and repetition
of information occurs
⚫Semantic encoding: Actual coding process
of incoming messages
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The Learning Process
⚫Learning strategies
⚫Rehearsal: Focuses on learning through
repetition
⚫Organizing: Requires the learner to find
similarities and themes in the training
material
⚫Elaboration: Requires the trainee to relate
the training material to other, more familiar
knowledge
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The Learning Process
⚫Learning can be considered a dynamic cycle
that involves four stages:
• Concrete experience (Work problem)
• Reflective observation (Thinking about it)
• Abstract conceptualization (generation of
ideas of how to solve the problem)
• Active experimentation (implementation of
the ideas directly to the problem)
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The Learning Process
⚫ Researchers have developed
questionnaires to measure trainees’
weak and strong points in the learning
cycle. Some people have a tendency to
over- or underemphasize one stage of
the learning cycle or to avoid certain
stages.
⚫ The key to effective learning is to be
competent in each of the four stages.
⚫ Four fundamental learning styles are
believed to exist. These learning styles
combine elements of each of the four 4-29
Learning Styles
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Age Influences on
Learning
⚫ There is biological evidence that certain
mental capacities decrease from age 20 to
age 70.27
⚫ Short-term memory and the speed at which
people process information decline as we age.
⚫ However, with age comes experience, which
can compensate for the loss of memory and
mental quickness.
⚫ Some trainers believe that there are four
generations of employees with distinct
attitudes toward work and preferred ways to
learn.
⚫ Those generations have been called
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millenniums (nexters or GenY), Gen Xers,
Implications of the Learning
Process for Instruction
⚫ Instruction refers to the trainer’s
manipulation of the environment in order to
help trainees learn.
⚫ To provide trainees with the best chance to
learn, it is important to ensure that the right
forms of instruction are included in training.
⚫ Table 4.6 summarizes the features of good
instruction that facilitate the learning process.
⚫ The features of a positive learning
environment need to be designed into
training courses, programs, or specific
training methods that might be used, whether
lectures, e-learning, or on-the-job training.
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Table 4.6 - Features of Instruction and the Work
Environment that Facilitate Learning and Transfer of
Training
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INSTRUCTIONAL EMPHASIS
FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES
⚫ Effective instruction must align with both internal and
external conditions of learning.
⚫ Internal conditions involve cognitive processes like
registering, storing, and recalling information,
⚫ external conditions relate to the learning environment,
such as opportunities for practice, feedback, and
reinforcement.
⚫ These conditions must support each step of the
learning process.
⚫ For example, when helping learners commit content to
memory, it’s essential to use verbal cues, relevant
context, and visual aids like diagrams. Without proper
encoding, learning can be hindered.
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Table 4.15 - Internal and External Conditions
Necessary for Learning Outcomes
Learning Internal Conditions External Conditions
Outcomes Verbal Previously learned knowledge and Repeated practice
Information verbal information Meaningful chunks
Labels, facts, and Strategies for coding information Advance organizers
propositions into Recall cues
memory
Intellectual Skills Link between new and previously
Knowing how learned knowledge
Cognitive Recall of prerequisites, similar Verbal description of strategy
Strategies tasks, Strategy demonstration
Process of thinking and strategies Practice with feedback
and learning Variety of tasks that provide
opportunity to apply strategy
Attitudes Mastery of prerequisites Demonstration by a model
Choice of personal Identification with model Positive learning environment
action Cognitive dissonance Strong message from credible source
Reinforcement
Motor Skills Recall of part skills Practice
Muscular actions Coordination program Demonstration
Gradual decrease of external feedback
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CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGNING
EFFECTIVE
TRAINING PROGRAMS
• This section outlines how trainers can apply
learning theories by taking practical steps to
design effective training.
• Key actions include selecting a suitable
training site, choosing skilled trainers,
creating a positive and engaging learning
environment, and designing programs with
clear objectives, meaningful content, and
opportunities for practice and feedback.
• These elements ensure that training is both
theoretically sound and practically effective.
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Selecting and Preparing the
Training Site
The training site refers to the room where
training will be conducted. A good training site
offers the following features:
1. It is comfortable and accessible.
2. It is quiet, private, and free from
interruptions.
3. It has sufficient space for trainees to move
easily around in, offers enough room for
trainees to have adequate work space, and has
good visibility for trainees to see each other, the
trainer, and any visual displays or examples
that will be used in training (e.g., videos,
product samples, charts, slides). 4-37
Details to Be Considered in the
Training Room
•Noise:
•Check for noise from heating and air conditioning systems.
•Check for noise from adjacent rooms, corridors, and outside
the building.
•Colors:
•Pastel hues (oranges, greens, blues, yellows) are considered
warm and inviting.
•Variations of white feel cold and sterile.
•Black and brown shades can make the room feel closed in and
cause fatigue.
•Room Structure:
•Use rooms that are somewhat square in shape.
•Avoid long, narrow rooms as they hinder visibility, hearing, and
engagement.
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Seating Arrangements
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Choosing Trainers
• Companies can choose professional trainers or use
internal staff with subject expertise.
• Internal trainers often need support through train-
the-trainer programs to develop effective
communication, presentation, and instructional skills.
• These programs may include certification and should
focus on essential training elements like feedback
and practice.
• It's also important for internal experts to present
content clearly and use practical examples to avoid
overwhelming trainees with complex concepts.
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How Trainers Can Make the
Training Site and Instruction
Conducive to Learning
1- Creating a Learning Setting
• When selecting a training room, it's important
to consider how trainees will learn—
specifically, the level of self-direction and
collaboration involved. The setup should align
with the training goals.
• For instance, a classroom with movable
furniture is ideal for high collaboration but low
self-direction, making it suitable for lectures,
discussions, and group activities.
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How Trainers Can Make the
Training Site and Instruction
Conducive to Learning
2- Preparation
• To deliver effective training, trainers must thoroughly
know their content and rehearse to build confidence
and manage timing.
• Training should be designed with the audience in mind,
always asking, “So what?” when planning content.
• Trainers using technology must be familiar with the
tools, have backups, and prepare visuals in multiple
formats. Arriving early to set up, check materials, and
greet participants helps create a smooth and
welcoming start.
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How Trainers Can Make the
Training Site and Instruction
Conducive to Learning
3-Classroom Management
• Monitor the room for extra chairs, overflowing
trash cans, and piles of materials left over
from previous training sessions.
• A messy, disorganized, uninviting training
room creates learning distractions.
• Give trainees frequent breaks so they can
leave the room and return ready to learn.
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How Trainers Can Make the
Training Site and Instruction
Conducive to Learning
4- Interacting with Trainees
• You as a trainer carry the responsibility for the
trainees’ learning experience. You need to
communicate the topics that will be covered,
the learning approach that will be used, and
the expectations for trainees.
• You need to be dramatic to draw attention to
important points.
• Research suggests that trainees have the best
recall of training content when the trainer is
enthusiastic and avoids vocal distractions
(e.g., use of “er” and “um”).
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How Trainers Can Make the
Training Site and Instruction
Conducive to Learning
5- Dealing with Disruptive Trainees
• To handle employees resistant to training, trainers
should start confidently by explaining the value of the
session and how it benefits them.
• Allow trainees to express frustrations through
interactive activities, such as group discussions or
drawing exercises, to shift focus toward the training's
relevance.
• For disruptive or disengaged participants, incorporate
active and engaging methods to boost energy and
involvement.
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How Trainers Can Make the
Training Site and Instruction
Conducive to Learning
6-Managing Group Dynamics
• To balance expertise in training groups, ask
participants to rate their knowledge and form mixed-
skill groups.
• Monitor group dynamics by observing interactions,
noting signs of frustration and adjusting seating or
ensure everyone participates.
• Seating arrangements can influence authority, so
trainers should be mindful of how the room is set up.
• The end of a rectangular table is the position
of authority. Putting a quiet person in the
“power seat” creates an opportunity for him
to assume a leadership role.
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Program Design
Program design refers to the organization and
coordination of the training program. A training
program may include one or several courses.
Each course may contain one or more lessons.
Program design includes considering the
purpose of the program as well as designing
specific lessons within the program. Effective
program design includes a design document
template, a course or lesson plan, and a course
or lesson plan overview
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Program Design: Design
Document
A design document can be used to guide the
development of training and to explain the
training to managers, subject matter experts,
reviewers, or other trainers. a design document
template. Information for the design document
is based on the information obtained from the
needs assessment discussed in Chapter 3.
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4-49
Program Design: Design
Document
• The project scope outlines the training
goals, expected outcomes, trainee profile,
development timeline with key
milestones, and course duration. Course
length depends on trainee abilities,
availability, resource needs, whether it’s
part of a broader curriculum, and the
importance of breaking content into
modules to support practice and prevent
overload.
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Program Design: Design
Document
• Delivery includes what the course will cover,
how it will be delivered (e.g., face-to-face,
online), an estimate of the training time, and
the identification of any special conditions or
issues that may affect the course (e.g.,
problems getting equipment to video role-
plays and provide feedback).
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Program Design: Design
Document
• Objectives refers to the course objectives. It is
important to realize that within a training
program there are usually different types of
objectives that vary in specificity and detail.
- Program objectives refer to broader
summary statements of the purpose of the
program. They are usually included on the
design template.
- Course objectives or lesson objectives
refer to the goals of the course or the lesson.
These objectives are more specific in terms of
expected behaviors, content, conditions, and
standards.
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Program Design: Design
Document
• Resources refers to the materials—cases,
DVDs, videos, models, process maps,
podcasts, lesson plans, or guides for use by
the facilitator or participants—that need to be
purchased or developed for the course
• Who is involved includes trainers, program
designers, and individuals who will be
involved in the design, delivery, and
evaluation of the program.
• The topical outline includes a brief outline of
the topics that will be covered in the program. 4-53
Program Design: Design
Document
• Administration and evaluation refers to
who will be in charge of course
scheduling, how trainees will enroll,
how the course will be evaluated, and
who will review and update the course.
• Links to other programs refers to any
other needs, such as a train-the-trainer
program or manager introduction or
kick-off for the program. Table 4.16
shows a simple design document for
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the performance appraisal feedback
Program Design: Course or
Lesson Plan
• Lesson plans are detailed guides that outline
the specific steps, activities, timing, and
administrative details of a training session.
• Unlike broader design documents, lesson
plans break down each day of training,
ensuring consistency across trainers and
clarity on objectives for both trainers and
trainees. They also serve as useful references
for managers and stakeholders to understand
the structure and goals of the training
program.
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4-56
Program Design: Lesson Plan
Overview
4-57
Program Design: Lesson Plan
Overview
• A lesson plan overview helps trainers
allocate time for each topic, identify when
trainers are needed, plan breaks, and
schedule practice and feedback sessions.
• In performance appraisal feedback
training, it shows that about half the time
is dedicated to active learning through
discussions, role plays, and Q&A,
enhancing trainee engagement and skill
application.
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Summary
• Learning must occur for training to be
effective. This chapter began by defining
learning and identifying the capabilities that
can be learned: verbal information,
intellectual skills, motor skills, attitudes, and
cognitive strategies.
• To explain how these capabilities can be
learned, the chapter discussed several
theories of learning: reinforcement theory,
social learning theory, goal setting theory,
need theories, expectancy theory, adult
learning theory, and information processing
theory.
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