Sensors & Transducers
CSE - IoT | Lecture Notes
Dr. P. Rathi Devi
Introduction
• Sensor → Detects & measures physical
quantity
• Transducer → Converts one form of energy →
another
• Examples: Thermistor, Microphone, LDR
Functions of Sensors
• Detection of signal
• Measurement of magnitude
• Conversion to electrical form
• Transmission of data
• Smart sensors: preprocessing + IoT
Classification of Sensors
• Energy Source: Active / Passive
• Output: Analog / Digital
• Measured Quantity: Temp, Pressure, Light,
Motion, Chemical
• Contact: Contact / Non-contact
Technical Requirements & Trends
• Requirements: Accuracy, Sensitivity, Linearity,
Stability, Fast response
• Trends:
• - MEMS/NEMS miniaturization
• - Wireless IoT-enabled sensors
• - Energy harvesting
• - AI/ML-driven smart sensors
Units & Standards
• Temperature → °C, K
• Pressure → Pascal (Pa)
• Light → Lux (lx)
• Force → Newton (N)
• Standards: ISO, IEEE, NIST
Calibration
• Definition: Comparing sensor with standard
reference
• Methods: Direct comparison, Substitution,
Null balance
• Goal: Reduce systematic error
Errors in Measurement
• Types: Systematic, Random, Gross
• Key Concepts:
• - Limiting Error
• - Probable Error
• - Propagation of Error
• - Uncertainty & Odds
Principle of Transduction
• Resistive: Strain gauge
• Inductive: LVDT
• Capacitive: Pressure sensor
• Optical: Photodiode
• Piezoelectric: Stress → Voltage
Static Characteristics
• Accuracy, Precision, Sensitivity
• Resolution, Linearity, Hysteresis
• Drift
Mathematical Models
• Zero-order: Output ∝ Input
• First-order: T(dy/dt) + y = Kx
• Second-order: d²y/dt² + 2ζωn(dy/dt) + ωn²y =
Kωn²x
Dynamic Characteristics
• First-order sensors: Step input → Exponential
rise
• Depends on time constant (τ)
• Second-order sensors: Step, Impulse,
Sinusoidal tests
• Depends on damping ratio (ζ)
• Underdamped / Overdamped / Critical
IoT Examples
• Temperature sensor → DHT11/LM35
• Motion sensor → PIR
• Gas sensor → MQ-135
• Accelerometer → MPU6050
• Applications: Smart homes, Wearables, EVs,
Industry 4.0
