1

MSc Lecture 1:
Fire Fundamentals:
Ignition, Ceiling Jets and
Plumes; Fire Combustion

Professor W.K. Chow

Department of Building Services Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Hong Kong, China
3 September 2018
[Link]
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(1) Fire Triangle

 Fire is a rapid oxidation process accompanied
by the evolution of:
– heat,
– light,
– flames (a glowing mass of gas) and
– the emission of sound,

 An unwanted combustion:
(not controlled-combustion as in furnace, gas cooker, and IC
engine)

 Fuel + Oxygen  Product + Heat

C· /H· /OH· O· CO/CO2
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 Fire requires:
– fuel,
– oxygen and
– heat to start; thermal feedback later.

 These three elements together form a fire

triangle.
 Without any one of those elements, there is no
fire.
 Removing any one of them would extinguish
the fire.
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Fuel (Fire load)

Heat Oxygen
(Ignition) (Ventilation factor)
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 The amount of fuel in a space is described by

‘fire load density’: the amount of combustible
material in heat content (or equivalent weights of
wood) per unit floor area.
 Oxygen in the air is controlled by the volume of
space, window areas and ventilation arrangements.
 Heat initially has to come from sources such as gas
cooker, electrical fault, lit cigarette, etc.
– But once the fire has started, heat released by
combustion would be fedback to the fuel.
 Chain reactions cause the fire self-sustaining.
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No Combustibles!

Arson fire – MTR train vehicle in Jan, 2004

(EastWeek, 4 August 2004)
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No Combustibles!

Arson fire – MTR train vehicle in Feb, 2017

(South China Morning Post, 11 February 2017)
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This is a test – But it could be your home if you’re not careful.

“Burning to save lives” Ecos, Issue 59, Autumn, 1989, CSIRO, East Melbourn, pp.4-9
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Dense Urban Areas:
Fire safety is a concern

EastWeek, 4 August 2004, pp. 76-77

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Deep subway stations 40 m deep
Underground
railway station

Station crowded with

Beijing West Station passengers
(from Jiang et al. 2009)
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New Architectural Features

 Examples
– Extensive use of glass
– Provision of natural ventilation
– Internal building void
– Good thermal insulation materials
– Sandwich panels, big fires in China!
– Supertall Buildings
 Fire safety issues
– Prescriptive codes
– Conflicting with environmental aspects
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Uses of old industrial buildings

 Subdivided units
 Mini-storages spaces

Many big fires occurred

- 108 hours in June 2016
- 9 hours in July 2016
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Fire at Fa Yuen Street, Mongkok, Hong Kong

30 November 2011

Burning a hawker stall View at height

(Photos from: The Standard, 1 December 2011)
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Big Gas Explosion Incident in Hong Kong
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Big Gas Explosion Incident in Hong Kong

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London Residential Building Fire
倫敦住宅樓火災
14 June 2017
(40 Years old building)

(Source: Victoria Jones/PA via AP Photo)

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Existing fire codes needed to change
after reviewing ?
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Bologna, Italy, August 2018

[Link]

 Fire + Explosion
 HGV + Oil Tanker Truck
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Atlanta Highway Bridge Fire 2017

[Link]
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Useless to blame others !

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(2) Stages in an Enclosure Fire

When fire occurs in a room, its course is
determined by:
 the combustible contents,
 the nature of the surrounding construction
(wall, ceiling and floor)
 the configuration of the premise and
 the air supply.
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Why indoor fires are more dangerous ?

Lost Heat and Mass to Outside

Room: Heat and Mass Trapped

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There are at least three stages in a fire:

Growth Development Decay

800

Temperature/ C

Flashover

Time
Temperature Course of a Fire
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 Growth stages:
– This starts from the ignition up to flashover
when all materials are heated to their ignition
temperatures.
– Preflashover stage.
 Development stage:
– The whole content is under combustion and
the temperature increases at a significantly
slower rate.
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 Decay stage:
– The fire is extinguishing because either the fuel
is burning out or there is insufficient air supply.
– The temperature of the enclosure drops
gradually.
 The length of each stage depends on the
combustibility, calorific value of materials,
nature of surrounding construction, the
configurations of the premise and the supply of
air.
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Three minutes to flash-over

“Burning to save lives” Ecos, Issue 59, Autumn, 1989, CSIRO, East Melbourn, pp.4-9
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C
eilin
gjet

H
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asb
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antlay
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H
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aso
ut

C
onv
ectio
n

P
lume C
oolairin

R
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F
IRE

F
uel

C
ond
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n
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Some terms
 Smouldering (U.S.: Smoldering)
– A burning process without flame due to
limited supply of oxygen,
– e.g. an underground mine fire in Scotland.
– Involves surface oxidation of the char which
provides the heat necessary to cause further
thermal degradation of the neighbouring layer
of combustible materials.
– 2 factors to occur
~ Porosity : allow oxygen to permeate
~ Must yield a char upon thermal decomposition.
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 Cooling:
– A process of fire extinguishment or control by
a reduction of temperature.
 Starvation:
– A process of fire extinguishment by limitation
or reduction of fuel.
 Smothering:
– A process of fire extinguishment by limiting
oxygen supply, e.g. cover CO2 on burning fuel
surface.
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 Inhibition:
– A process of fire extinguishment by the use of
an agent which interrupts the chemical
reaction in the flame.
– Chemicals required.
– Basically consuming H· /O· /OH·
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Fire classification according to National
Fire Protection Association (e.g. NFPA 10
on Fire Extinguishers):
 Class A Fire
– Fires involving ordinary combustible
materials (such as wood, cloth, paper,
rubber and many plastics),
– requiring the heat absorbing (cooling)
effects of water, water solutions,
– the coating effects of certain dry chemicals
which retard combustion.
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 Class B Fire
– Fires involving flammable or combustible
liquids, flammable gases, greases, and
similar materials
– extinguishment is most readily secured by:
excluding air (oxygen), inhibiting the
release of combustible vapours, or
interrupting the combustion chain reaction.
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 Class C Fire
– Fire including energized electrical
equipment
– safety to the operator requires the use of
electrically unconductive extinguishing
agents.
– becomes Class A or Class B fires when electrical
equipment is de-energized.
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 Class D Fire
– Fire involving certain combustible metals,
such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
sodium, potassium, etc.
– requiring a heat absorbing extinguishing
medium not reactive with the burning
metals.
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 Class K Fire
– Cooking appliances with cooking media and
vegetable or animal oils.
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(3) Ignition
 The fuel concerned is heated by source to give
combustion.
 The fuel has to be raised to some temperature,
so that at a given supply of oxygen, the
combustion takes place readily and the
reaction is self-sustaining.
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A mattress begins to burn, and before long…

(CSIRO)
“Burning to save lives” Ecos, Issue 59, Autumn, 1989, CSIRO, East Melbourn, pp.4-9
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A pillow !
(CSIRO)
“Burning to save lives” Ecos, Issue 59, Autumn, 1989, CSIRO, East Melbourn, pp.4-9
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To gauge the degree of flammability of an item of furniture when

exposed to naked flame, CSIRO researchers have devised a test wherein
a ‘crib’ of cribs-crossed pieces of wood is ignited on the top of the
furniture.
Cribs vary from 50 g to 400 g in weight; the bigger the crib (without fire
starting and spreading), the better is the fire performance of the item.
“Burning to save lives” Ecos, Issue 59, Autumn, 1989, CSIRO, East Melbourn, pp.4-9
 40

 Examples of the ignition temperature for

common materials are:
Materials Pilot Ignition Temperature  C Self Ignition Temperature  C
Cotton 230 - 266 254
Paper 230 230
White pine 228 - 264 260
Polyethylene 341 349
PVC 391 454
Perspex 280 - 300 450 - 462
Polystyrene foam 346 491
Polyurethane 310 416
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 In general, heat generated by a burning material

is given by Arrhenius’ equation:

Q = Ae-E/RT (1)

Q = Rate of heat generated per unit volume of the material.

A = Heat generation coefficient.
E = Activation Energy.
R = Gas constant.
T = Temperature of the material (in K).
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 Wood for example has:

- A = 2 x 10-6 cal s-1 cm-3 and
- E = 25 kcal mol-2.
 Substituting into equation (1), wood requires
10 years to raise 1 ºC if it is initially at room
temperature.
 But it takes only a few seconds if wood is
maintained at 200 ºC.
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 In this way, the heat generated is much greater

than the heat loss, its temperature rises
progressively and ignition occurs.
 This is called self-ignition or spontaneous
ignition.
 If the ignition is produced by external sources, it
is called pilot ignition if the source does not make
contact with the materials (i.e. by radiation), and
surface ignition if it is in contact (e.g. in contact
with the pilot flame).
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 In order to raise the fuel to its ignition

temperature, heat has to be transferred to or
generated within the fuel.
 If heat is generated totally within the fuel, the
reaction is called a spontaneous combustion.
 It can be chemical or biological in nature.
 Sometimes, the rise in external temperature is less
than the ignition temperature, but it might
accelerate internal reactions so that heat is
eventually built up inside the field to a stage
where ignition occurs.
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 Heat comes from external source is referred to

ignition source.
 It must have sufficient energy to raise the fuel up
to its ignition temperature.
 Also the energy must be transferred to the fuel
rapidly enough for reaction to take place.
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 If the source is a small flame (usually about

600 C to 1000 C for luminous flame),
temperature of it is well above the ignition
temperatures of most combustible materials.
 But it may not be able to ignite the fuel since heat
can be transferred away.
 The amount of heat energy available in the source
is critical in determining ignition.
 For example, a match flame is quite unable to
ignite a heavy wooden work bench.
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 The transfer process can be visualized as:

Heat loss by Heat loss by

radiation convection

Radiation

Convection
(If hot gas flow
towards the fuel) Material

Conduction
(If in contact) Heat loss by conduction

Flame
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 The balance in heat transfer is important in the

process.
 The heat capacity per unit volume of a material
is a function of the density  and specific heat
C.
 But the amount of heat conducted away from
the heated area is measured by the thermal
conductivity k.
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Thermal Inertia kC

 By solving the one-dimensional conduction equation,
the quantity kC would become a measure of time
taken to heat up the material when exposed under a
heat source.
 Therefore, its value is significant in determining
ignition characteristic of the material.
 Note that this quantity is different from the thermal
diffusivity k/C as in:
2
 k  

C x 2
t (2)
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 Therefore, from the above table, although

polystyrene (PS) foam has a higher ignition
temperature, but its kC is very low.
 Therefore, when exposed to similar heat
sources, its surface will be heated up much
more rapidly.
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 Further, the incident radiation intensity of the

external source will also determine the time
required to ignite the materials.
 For wood, the curve is as follows:
Incident
radiation intensity
Cal/m2 s
1.0

Critical
intensity
200 Ignition time /sec
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 For other materials, values of the critical

intensities are:
Critical intensity (cal/cm2s)
Materials Surface ignition Pilot ignition Spontaneous ignition
Wood 0.1 0.35 0.7
Fibre insulating - 0.4 0.55 - 1.2
board
Cork - 0.08 0.55
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FIB = fibre insulating board;

PUF = polyurethane foam.
Figures are values of kcp, from:
  Thermal inertia decreases
   
s  t  
 t
1  exp  erfc 
 
 k 
2
  k 
 h   
    h 

k
when  
c
Effect of thermal inertia (kcp) in W2s/m4.K2, on the rate of
with h = 20 W/m .K 2
temperature rise at the surface of a semi-infinite solid
Ts = surface temperature “Fire Dynamics” D.D. Drysdale (1985)

k
 c 1
~ ~
k k kc Heat flux
x = 0, Ts
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Material Thermal Specific Thermal Thermal
conductivity Density  heat c diffusivity  absorptivity kc
k (W m-1 K-1) (kg m-3) (J kg-1 K-1) (10-6 m2 s-1) (J m-2 s-1/2 K-1)

Steel 44.0 7800 460 12.3 12600

Mabel 2.0 7650 1000 0.755 2300
Normal-
weight
concrete 1.7 2250 1200 0.630 2140
Brick 1.0 2100 900 0.529 1370
Lightweight
concrete 0.50 1450 1000 0.345 850
Plastic board 0.25 750 2500 0.133 680
Wood 0.15 550 1800 0.152 390
Mineral wool 0.04 160 1150 0.217 86

Typical values of the thermal properties of common construction

materials (in moistureless condition) for a temperature level
appropriate for a 20-min fire exposure
“Fire safety design and concrete” T. Z. Harmathy (1993)
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(4) Growth of an Enclosure Fire

 Early phase of growth involves fire spreading
away from the ignition source through the
material.
 Fundamental mechanism relies on the fact that
the fire itself would produce more heat than is
necessary to promote the initial combustion
reaction.
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Two Important Factors in Determining
Fire Spread
 The quantity of heat available from the
burning material.
 The rate of this heat can be released.

Ignition Heat Combustion Excess Further Heat

Source Heat Combustion

Heat
Losses
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 Therefore, as excess heat is generated and fed

back to the unburnt fuel, the growth of fire will be
an accelerating process.
 In the early stage of an enclosure fire, the fire size
is small and its interaction with the compartment
is negliable.
 The fire is very similar to the one in an open
space.
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 But an important factor for determining the initial

rate of spread is the proportion of generated heat
which is lost to the local environment.
 This depends on many geometical and physical
parameters such as shape and orientation of the
fuel, presence of edges and corners, thermal
reflectance of surfaces and draughts.
 Once the fire becomes well established locally, it
will continue to grow as long as fuel and oxygen
are available.
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 The heat referred to as 'heat lost in the material' in

fact will still be conserved within the system.
 Heat lost by conduction to other parts of material
will raise the temperature of it to its ignition
temperature.
 Heat lost by convection and radiation will warm
the compartment and the adjacent combustible
materials.
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 Hot gases emitted from the fire will form a plume

and raise to a form a layer under the ceiling to
warm up the walls and hence re-radiate heat.
 At this stage, the fire can be referred to as
compartment fire and the progress of the fire will
be influenced by the geometry and physical
properties of the compartment.
 Ventilation will play an important part in
controlling the rate of growth.
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 When the plume reaches the ceiling, it will be

deflected horizontally (i.e. a ceiling jet).
 Since oxygen will be entrained slower in the hot
smoke layer, the unburnt gases from the fire will
spread until they mixed with sufficient oxygen for
complete combustion.
 So at the early stage, convective heat is responsible
for the general rise in temperature.
 Then radiation, particularly downward radiation from
layers of flames and hot gases at the ceiling, will
contribute to the increasing rate of fire growth.
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 As the temperatures and downward radiation in the

room increase, fuel at distance away from the ignition
source will be pre-heated.
 Eventually, spontaneous ignition of contents distant
from the flame zone occurs.
 This is generally happened when the hot gas layer
reaches at about 500 to 600C.
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 Because of the sudden involvement of additional fuel,

the ceiling flames increase very rapidly, and the
thickness of hot gas layer increases, and so bringing
the flames down closer to the fuel and hence heat up
all the combustible materials within the room.
 The air flow within the compartment will be turbulent
to enable rapid mixing of unburnt gas with air.
 So the whole room appears to become full of flame.
 This transition from the 'growth' to the 'developed'
stage is called flashover.
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(5) Flamming/Glowing
Flaming Mode (early stage)

 Flamming: Free burning with

Intermediate gases/vapours (or volatiles) from
Stage solid/liquid (condensed matter).

Glowing Mode
 Glowing: Surface
(final stage) combustion: burning localized to
Glowing interfacial surface between air
Region
and fuel.
Mass Rate of burning

Mass loss rate decreased

Time
Flaming and glowing combustion
“Fire Fundamentals & Control” Haessler (1989)
 3 or more nonluminous 65
flaming zones
Smoke & products of
incomplete combustion

Minimum free carbon

Flaming direction under
Cold gas or atomized influence of thermal update

liquid fuel zone

Mixing chamber Fire intensity is a function of

fuel type
and radiative feedback
Controlled air induction

Fuel under pressure Turbulent, nonzonal luminous

yellowish flaming-free carbon

Premixed flame
“Fire Fundamentals & Control” Haessler (1989)

Fuel cracking zone

Air Induction

Fuel
Diffusion flame
“Fire Fundamentals & Control” Haessler (1989)
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(6) Combustion Chemistry

 Taking poly(methyl methacrylate) PMMA as
an example, the chemical structure is:

CH3
[ CH2 C ]
n
COOCH3
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 The chemical reactions of PMMA burning

are very complex with 7 groups of possible
intermediate reactions:
– Thermal decomposition
– Thermal oxidative decomposition
– Decomposition of monomer MMA
– Methane combustion
– Methanol combustion
– Formaldehyde oxidation
– Acetylene combustion
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 Taking the group on ‘methane combustion’ as an example, there are 77
intermediate reactions :
H+O2 = O + OH (1)
O+ H2 = H + OH (2)
OH + H2 = H2O + H (3)
OH + OH = H2O + O (4)

H + OH + M H2O + M (5)
H + O2 + M HO2 + M (6)
HO2 + H OH + OH (7)
HO2 + OH H2O + O2 (8)
CO + OH = CO2 + H (9)
CH4 + H= CH3 + H2 (10)

CH4 + O CH3 + OH (11)

CH4 + OH = CH3 + H2O (12)

CH3 + H CH4 (13)

CH3 + H = CH2 + H2 (14)
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HCO + OH CO + H2O (29) CH + O CO + H (43)
HCO + O2 CO + HO2 (30) CH + OH HCO + H (44)
CH2 + H + M CH3 + M (31) CH + OH = C + H2O (45)
CH2 + H = CH + H2 (32) CH + O2 HCO + O (46)
CH2 + O CO + H + H (33) CH + H2O CH2O + H (47)
CH2 + O CO + H2 (34) CH + CO2 HCO + CO (48)
CH2 + OH CH2O + H (35) C + OH CO + H (49)
CH2 + OH = CH + H2O (36) C + O2 CO + O (50)
CH2 + O2 CH2O + O (37) NH + H N + H2 (51)
CH2 + O2 CO2 + H2 (38) NH + O NO + H (52)
CH2(S) + M = CH2 + M (39) NH + O N + OH (53)
CH2(S) +O2 CO + OH + H (40) NH + NO = N2O + H (54)

CH2(S) + CO2 CH2O +CO (41) N + OH NO + H (55)

CH + H = C + H2 (42) N + O2 NO + O (56)
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N + NO = N2 + O (57) CH2 + NO NCO + H2 (71)

O + N2 + M N2O + M (58) CH2(S) + NO OH + HCN (72)

N2O + H N2 + OH (59) CH + NO HCN + O (73)

HCN + O NCO + H (60) C + NO CN + O (74)

HCN + O NH + CO (61) C + NO N + CO (75)

N + CO2 = NO + CO (76)
HCN + OH CN + H2O (62)
HCN + OH NCO + H2 (63) N + CH2 HCN + 2H (77)

CN + OH NCO + H (64)
CN + O2 NCO + O (65)
NCO + H NH + CO (66)
NCO + OH NO + CO + H (67)
NCO + NO N2O + CO (68)
CH + N2 HCN + N (69)
C + N2 CN + N (70)