University of Dar es Salaam

4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
4.1 Introduction
An operational amplifier is a multistage DC/AC amplifier with the
following ideal properties
Infinity voltage gain open loop gain, Ao
Infinity input resistance, Ri
Infinite Common Mode Rejection ratio, CMRR
Zero output resistance, Ro
It is an IC of 8 or 14 pins

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
• Op Amp IC 741

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Equivalent model
Vd is the differential input between input 1
and input 2

In practice the values of Ri and Ro are finite

in MΩ and few Ohms respectively as compared
to ideal case of Ri is infinity and Ro is zero

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Single input signal

Double input signal

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Virtual Ground
Vo= AvVd
But Av is infinitely large
This implies that Vd is very small,
Since input resistance is high and the current is near zero then virtually A and B
are short circuited
Example:
If Vo=10 V and Av = 105 gives Vi=10-4! Very small ≈ 0 V!
Since Vd is near zero then point A is near ground hence virtually grounded

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Basic Op Amp circuits
Inverting Amplifier
R1 and Rf are connected
Analysis is simplified noting that Ri is very
large and Ro
is very small

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
There are two signal sources V1 and –AvVi and Ro=0.
Using superposition to determine V1 we first hold AvVi. =0, then
𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑖= 𝑉
1
𝑅1 + 𝑅 𝑓 1

𝑅1
𝑉𝑖 = ( − 𝐴𝑉 𝑉 𝑖 )
2
𝑅 1+ 𝑅 𝑓
Holding V1= 0 gives
Hence

or
Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II
 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
From the equation 𝑅𝑓
𝑉 𝑖= 𝑉1
𝑅 𝑓 + ( 1+ 𝐴 𝑣 ) 𝑅1
Av is very large, hence

But
Since
AvVi=Vo
Therefore

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Taking Av into consideration:
Vo=Av (V- - V+) =Av (V- - 0)= AvV-=AvVi, Therefore (V1 - Vi )/R1= (Vi - Vo)/Rf
Substitution gives
Vo/V1 = -1/(R1/Rf+1/Av+R1/RfAv) =(-Rf/R1 )/(1+ (1+Rf/R1)/Av)
=(-Rf/R1 ).{1+ (1+Rf/R1)/Av}-1
Rearranging in series one approximates to
Vo/Vi=(-Rf/R1 ){1- (1+Rf/R1)/Av}
The error term is (1+Rf/R1)/Av and is negligible if Av is large
Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II
 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
=(-Rf/R1 ).{1+ (1+Rf/R1)/Av}-1
Rearranging in series one approximates to Vo/Vi=(-Rf/R1 ){1- (1+Rf/R1)/Av}
The error term is (1+Rf/R1)/Av and is negligible if Av is large

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Non Inverting Amplifier
From the equivalent model
Potential divider give

Hence

• Feedback gain

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Taking Av into consideration, Vi =V+-V- ≠ 0, V1=V+ .
Vo=Av(V+-V-) or Vo=Av(V1-V-) ,
But V-=VoR1/(R1+Rf)
Substituting for V-
Vo/V1=Av/{1+AvR1/(R1+Rf)}
Note for large value of Av = Vo/V1= (R1+Rf)/R1
Rewriting expression with approximations:
Vo/V1=(1+Rf/R1){1-(1+Rf/R1)/Av} where the error is given by (1+Rf/R1)/Av
Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II
 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Multistage Using Op. Amp.
 Cascading n stages, say equal to 3 gives overall gain
AT= Vo/Vi=A1A2A3
The circuit has very high input resistance and very low output resistance

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Controlled Sources using Op. Amp
Voltage controlled voltage sources

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Voltage Controlled Current source

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
• Current Controlled Voltage source

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Current Controlled Current Source

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Buffer Circuit
Using an Op. Amp. a buffer circuit can be derived
The circuit translates high Input impedances to low output impedance
It has unit gain
Vo/V1=1

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Summing Amplifier
Using current summation
I=I1+I2+I3
-VO/Rf=V1/R1+V2/R2+V3/R3
Set
R1=R2=R3=R
Then
Vo=-(Rf/R)(V1+V2+V3)
Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II
 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Subtractor Circuit
From:
V+ =V1R2/(R1+R2),
(V2-V-)/R3=(V--Vo)/R4 and
V+ =V-
Then
Vo={(V1R2/(R1+R2)}(1+R4/R3)-V2R4/R3
Setting
R1 =R2 = R3= R4=R, gives Vo=V2-V1
Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II
 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Differential Amplifier
Setting R1 = R3, R2 = R4 one obtains a differential
amplifier for amplifying the
difference V1-V2 giving

Vo=(V1-V2)R2/R1

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Alternatively
One can negate V1 using Op. Amp 1
then sum the output with input V2
with Op. Amp 2

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
NOTE:
The circuit’s input resistance is governed by the magnitudes of
resistances used.
V1 sees input resistance
Ri1=R1+R2
V2 sees input resistance
Ri2=V2R3/{V2-V1R3/(R1+R2)}
This impedance mismatch is acceptable in instrumentation designs

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Instrumentation amplifier
The circuit uses identical Op. Amps

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
The circuit shows perfect balance between input loading
Input resistances are identical
Amplification factor is controlled by single resistor RP
Differential output Vo can be derived to give

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Differential Output Amplifier
A circuit for generating two signals of 1800 phase
difference
From figure: Vi=Vo1R/(R+Rf1) potential divider or
Vo1= Vi (R+Rf1)/R non inverted
Vo2=- Vi Rf2/R inverted
For Rf1=Rf2

Gives
V =-V
o1 o2 Engineering Department
Electronics and Telecommunications ES 211 Analogue Electronics II
 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Integrator Circuit
Current through R = Current through C
Vi/R = -CdVo/dt

Integrating

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Example:

Circuit produces a triangular wave from a square wave

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
 Differentiator Circuit
 Current through R = Current through C
-Vo/R = CdVi/dt
or

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Non-linear Circuits
Rectifier
For a diode to rectify a sinusoidal signal its peak value must exceed the
potential barrier VK, 0.7V for conduction.
How can one rectify smaller peak values?

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Use non-inverting Op. Amp
From the circuit
o Vo=ViAv

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Logarithmic Amplifier
Current through R, I=Vi/R
From Diode current
ID= I =Isexp(VD/VT)
=Isexp(Vo/VT)
Taking natural logs both sides and making Vo the subject
Vo =VTlnID/IS=VTlnVi/RIS
or Vo = aln(bVi) , where a and b are constants
Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II
 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Exponential Amplifier
Current through R is a diode current ID= ISExp(VD/VT)
Also
Vo= IDR and VD=Vi
Substituting in current equation
Vo= RISExp(Vi/VT)
o Or Vo= aExp(bVi)

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
Filters
Low pass filter
Passive Low Pass Filter
o Using potential divider rule:
o Vo/Vi=1/j2πfC/(R+1/j2πfC)
=1/(1+j2πfRC)
o Its cut-off frequency foH is given by
fo = 1/2πRC at A=Ao/√2
Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II
 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
To avoid loading the passive filter an Op. Amp is applied at its output
The ratio Vo/Vi can be adjusted using the non inverting gain of the
amplifier.

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
If a sharper drop of the signal amplitude is desired then two first order
LP filters or more are cascaded as shown

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
High Pass Filter
This eliminates low frequency signals at its
output
Using Potential Divider rule:
Vo/Vi=jωCR/(1+jωCR)
Cut-off frequency
foL = i/2πCR

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
To avoid loading and adjusting the gain ratio Vo/Vi an Op. Amp is used
Also two 1st order HP filters can be cascaded to get a sharper drop of
the amplitude of the filtered signals.

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
• Consider a combination of a LPF and a HPF

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
If the cut-off frequency of LPF (foL) and the cut-off frequency of HPF,
(foL) satisfy the condition: foH>foL
Then the filter is called Band Pass Filter
It only amplifies a band of signals in the range of foH - foL

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II

 University of Dar es Salaam
4. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
If the cut-off frequency of LPF (foL) and the cut-off
frequency of HPF, (foL) satisfy the condition:
foH<foL
Then the filter is called Band Reject Filter
It only rejects a band of signals in the range of foH - foL

Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering Department ES 211 Analogue Electronics II