Understanding Space

Environment
G. Raju
Jain University

Presented at
CEP Course on Space-based Radar
LRDE, Bangalore
9:00 to 10:30 Hrs.
30 August 2018

LRDE, Bangalore
 SPACECRAFT ENVIRONMENT

1. The fundamental aspects that define the environment in

which a spacecraft functions
2. The structure and phenomena related to earth’s
atmosphere and their relation to space activities
3. The solar system, the role of sun, solar radiation and solar
activity and its influence on earth’s environment
4. Orbital debris and its control
5. Examples of typical specifications and tests to be
conducted before satellite launch
6. Test facilities generally required at subsystem and
spacecraft levels
 SPACECRAFT ENVIRONMENT

1. Fundamental aspects that define the

environment in which a spacecraft functions
 Relevance to space technology
Satellites experience a variety of harsh
environment at different phases such as
before launch, during launch and in orbit:

Environment while handling on ground before

launch
During launch
On orbit during its lifetime.
Environmental parameters important in spacecraft design

1. On Ground:
 Handling during fabrication
 Humidity
 Temperature
 Transportation effects
 Storage, and so on
 Electro-magnetic Interference – EMI
 Electromagnetic compatibility - EMC
2. During Launch
 Vibration
 Shock
3. On-orbit
 Temperature
 Vacuum
 Radiation
 Debris is an unavoidable “environment” – no control possible
Spacecraft environmental tests
Major tests conducted on ground before launch
• Vibration test
• Shock-test
• Thermo-vacuum test
• EMI/EMC test
• Acoustic test
• Radiation tests for critical elements, if possible
• Generally radiation-hardened (RAD-HARD) devices
are used or
• On-orbit mitigation techniques are adapted
 Impact of space environment
on design of spacecraft
Thermal control
Spacecraft charging
Radiation effect
Vacuum/ corrosion (out gassing)
Micrometeorites
Debris
Drag
Sensors FOV constraints
Manned presence constraints
Micro gravity
 Relevance to space technology
Satellites experience a variety of harsh
environment at different phases such as
before launch, during launch and in orbit:
Environment while handling on ground before
launch
During launch
On orbit during its lifetime.
Environmental parameters important in spacecraft design

• On Ground:
 Handling during fabrication
 Humidity
 Temperature
 Transportation effects
 Storage, and so on
• During Launch
Vibration
 Shock
• On Orbit
• Temperature
• Vacuum
• Radiation
Hence ground tests are conducted thoroughly before launch
 Impact of space environment
on design of spacecraft
Thermal control
Spacecraft charging
Radiation effect
Vacuum/ corrosion (out gassing)
Micrometeorites
Debris
Drag
Sensors FOV constraints
Manned presence constraints
Micro gravity
 SEVERAL MAJOR FACTORS SPACE ENVIRONMENT
Radiation: Higher energy particles present in space may penetrate skin of
spacecraft or components. The charge deposits can upset the computer
logic or materials; can corrupt data; degrade semi-conductor components.

Vacuum/Corrosion: Atmospheric particles may bombard the spacecraft.

For ex., monatomic oxygen is highly reactive and could cause corrosion over
long time.

Out-gassing: Release of trapped gases

Cold-weld: Materials in contact in vacuum could cause transfer of particles

across their surfaces causing the “cold-weld”. This can affect moving parts
and suitable substances should be used to separate them or lubricate
them, because the lubricants in vacuum may boil away.

Micrometeorites: Can hit external surfaces such as solar panels and

thermal coatings affecting the spacecraft performance.

Debris: Broken pieces of satellites and launch vehicles orbiting in space

Earth's vicinity beyond the atmosphere
 SPACECRAFT ENVIRONMENT

2. The structure and phenomena related to

earth’s atmosphere and their relation to
space activities
 Main Atmospheric Layers

• Exosphere: 700 to 10,000 km

• Thermosphere: 80 to 700 km
• Mesosphere: 50 to 80 km
• Stratosphere: 12 to 50 km
• Troposphere: 0 to 12 km
 Atmospheric regions
1. Tropo sphere
i. Area of unstable air where weather phenomena takes place.
ii. Turbulent convection of the air heated at the surface by
earth’s IR emission
iii. Temp decreases linearly upto tropo pause
iv. At tropo pause temp. Does not vary (transition region)
2. Strato sphere (~ 10 -40 km)
i. Relatively non turbulent
ii. Temp. increases with altitude because of absorption of IR by
H2O and CO2 molecules
iii. Absorption of UV (solar) by Ozone
3. Meso sphere (~40 – 70 km)
i. Temp falls with height due to reradiation
4. Thermosphere
i. After meso pause, (Iso thermal layer), temp increases rapidly
with height due to direct absorption of solar radiation by
atmospheric constituents.
 Major constituents
• Major constituents of dry air, by volume in ppmv in %
• NitrogenN2 780,840 78.084
• OxygenO2 209,460 20.946
• Argon, Ar 9,340 0.9340
• Carbon dioxide,CO2 397 0.0397
• Neon, Ne 18.18 0.001818
• Helium He 5.24 0.000524
• MethaneCH4 1.79 0.000179

Not included in above dry atmosphere:

• Water vapor, H2O 10–50,000 0.001%–5%
TROPOSPHERE
CLOSEST LAYER TO EARTH
Earth’s atmosphere
Beyond Earth’s Atmosphere
 Layers, closest to Earth
MST – Mesosphere Stratosphere, Troposphere
Layers beyond M-S-T
 Ionosphere structure
Altitude NIGHT
800 DAY

400
F2
200
F1
100
E
80
D
60
10 102 103 104 105 106
Electron concentration
 TEMPERATURE PROFILE
Altitude
km EXO
100 THERMO SPHERE 700

80 MESO SPHERE
60 400

STRATO SPHERE
40 Thermo
100
20
TROPO SPHERE 1000 K

200 220 240 260 280

0
K
 Atmospheric regions
Exo sphere
Temp relatively constant with altitude (due to
large mean free path between molecules)
Energetic molecules may actually escape earth’s
gravity and be lost into space
Green house effect
Due to high IR absorption property of CO2 and
H2O molecules
Sun radiation ( in visible) pass through clear
atmosphere
Outgoing emission from earth in IR is trapped
by CO2
ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 ATMOSPHERIC TRANSMISSION OF
ELECTRO MAGNETIC RADIATION
Atmosphere practically transparent in visible EM region, whereas opaque in
other regions. Remote sensing utilizes the transparent regions known as
windows to avoid the effects of absorption of radiation.
0.38 - 0.78 Microns (visible)
0.72 - 3.00 Microns (middle IR, near IR)
8.00 - 14.00 Microns (thermal IR)

UV VISIBLE INFRARED MICROWAVE RADIO

H2O
REFLECTED IR THERMAL IR

CO 2
O3
TRANSMISSION (%)

H2O

100
O3
H2O

H2O
H2O

O2

O2
ATMOSPHERIC

CO 2
H2O

H2O
CO 2

0
WAVELENGTH 0.5mm 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 10 15 20m 0.1 cm 0.5 1.0 5 10
 ATMOSPHERIC DENSITY
Density variation is due to gravity and thermal
balance on molecules of different masses.

Thumb rule
 Solar activity causes variations in
densities
 Up to 100 km altitude, density
decreases by a factor of ten for every 10
miles
 Above this, the decrease is exponential
 Radiation pressure
j = Flux energy (crossing unit area and in unit
time)
j= mc2 Einstein’s equation for energy
j/ c = mc= momentum

If the beam is fully stopped by absorption,

change of momentum = Force = j / c
[Since j acts on unit area (j / c ) is pressure]

In case of reflection of radiation, change of

momentum or force is double due to opposite
bounce, that is 2 j / c
 Propulsion by radiation pressure

Pressure experienced by
absorbing surface , normal to = j/ c
incident radiation

Pressure if flux is totally reflected = 2j/ c

Aluminized plastic sail of 10-4 gm/sq cm facing Sun in the vicinity of
earth’s orbit experiences acceleration as follows (neglecting
gravitational effects. Note that 1 watt= 107 ergs/sec; 1erg = 1dyne cm.
Radi. Press. = 2j/ c = [2 (1.37) 106 ergs/sq cm- sec]/ [ 3 (1010)cm/sec]
= 0.91 (10-4 ) dyne/ sq cm
Acceleration = [0.91 (10-4 ) dyne/ sq cm] / [ (10-4) gm/sq cm]
= 0.91cm/sec2 = 0.9 (10-3 ) g
 Voyage through sail
Initial orbital motion

Fs

From
Sun From
Sun
Fs

Sail to Superior planet Sail to Inferior planet

 Recoil of reflecting surface

g
Fin
Fre Fin = Fre
Fre Fs

Resulting force from incident and reflecting beams is of

magnitude 2 Fin cos g in the direction of normal to the
surface and Fs = 2 Fin cos g
Pressure due to flux = j / c FLUX j

g
{j Cos g /c}
Fin

For reflecting sail Fs

Fs = 2 Fin Cos g ;
but Fin = j Cos g /c (See above diagram)
Fs = Force on refl. surface = 2 {j Cos2 g /c}
In terms of force due to radiation pressure,
Fs = prad S Cos2 g
From previous page, Fs = prad S Cos2 g ,

If radiation pressure at the earth’s orbit ra is po,

then force on solar sail at any distance r from the
Sun is
Fs = prad S (ra /r)2Cos2 g

Radial and angular components of this force is

component respectively are
Fr = r1 prad S (ra /r)2Cos3 g

Fj = -j1 prad S (ra /r)2Cos2 g Sin g

 Earth’s magnetic field

• More than 5,000 kilometers below ground,

the iron-rich core scorches at temperatures
comparable to the sun’s surface.

• This extreme environment helps generate

Earth’s magnetic field, the planet-wide force
that makes life on the surface possible.
 Solar particle interaction with earth’s Mag. Field
• Magnetic axis - tilt of 11,5 deg with respect to
earth’s rotation axis
• Magnetic centre 436 km off from geo centre towards
Pacific
• Solar wind and magnetic field
Shock front at 14 earth radii distance on one side of
earth (of incoming solar wind side). Solar particles
deflected, slowed; magnetic field deforms due to exchange
of energy
• Magneto pause – boundary where magnetic forces
overcome dynamic forces of solar wind (stable
boundary unless solar flares change the state)
• Magneto tail on the other side of earth extending to
60 Re (beyond moon distance)
 VAN ALLEN BELTS
The belts are located in the inner region of the
Earth's magnetosphere. The belts trap
energetic electrons and protons. Other nuclei,
such as alpha particles, are less prevalent.

Note: A magnetosphere is the region of space

surrounding an astronomical object in which charged
particles are controlled by that object's magnetic field
 Sun's Magnetic Field

The sun's magnetic field changes polarity approximately every 11 years. It

happens at the peak of each solar cycle as the sun's inner magnetic dynamo re-
organizes itself. The sun's polar magnetic fields weaken, go to zero and then
emerge again with the opposite polarity. This is a regular part of the solar
cycle.
 South Atlantic Anomaly

The (SAA) is an area where the Earth's inner Van Allen radiation belt
comes closest to the Earth's surface, dipping down to an altitude of
200 kilometres (120 mi). This leads to an increased flux of energetic
particles in this region and exposes orbiting satellites to higher-
than-usual levels of radiation.
 Geo magnetic storms
• During solar active - winds up to million km/sec
• Geo magnetic field fluctuations caused
• For min. to hrs, compression of field and
increase of strength
• Geo magnetic storms – 2 to 8 hrs field strengths
remain high
• After solar wind-storm stops, by action of
currents set up by trapped charged particles, geo
magnetic intensity drops below normal (12 – 24 hrs)
• Recovery phase begins
• Ionospheric variations can disturb communications
• Inert charged particles impact satellites– overloads,
processor errors etc.
 D H

Initial
phase
+50g
Main phase Recovery phase

-200g
 Radiation belts
•James Van Allen discovers while using instruments on V2 rocket
test flights & later Explorer flights – radiation around earth
•Some charged particles from space – getting trapped in earth’s
magnetic field
•Protons, electrons – varying energy levels
•More energetic particles closer to earth
•Major concentration around equator (magnetic flux minimum)
•Motion of particles – spiraling around magnetic field lines and
bouncing from pole to pole along the lines and also slow drift
along equator
•When they spiral near ionosphere, towards the earth near
poles, they produce auroral phenomena.
•Heating of atmosphere & precipitation in auroral zones
•Electrical currents flowing at high & low latitudes
 Van Allen belt
• A Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of energetic
charged particles, most of which originate from
the solar wind that is captured by and held
around a planet by that planet's magnetic field.
• The Earth has two such belts and sometimes
others may be temporarily created.
• The discovery of the belts is credited to James
Van Allen, and as a result the Earth's belts are
known as the Van Allen belts. Earth's two main
belts extend from an altitude of about 500 to
58,000 kilometers above the surface
 Van Allen Probes, formerly known
as the Radiation Belt Storm Probe

 They are two NASA robotic spacecraft

being used to study the Van Allen
radiation belts that surround Earth

Van Allen Probes

Inner Radiation Belt

Rotational axis

Magnetic axis
Outer Radiation Belt
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
3. The solar system, the role of sun, solar
radiation and solar activity and its influence
on earth’s environment
 Solar system
• Sun is major influence on the earth and space
surrounding it
• Radiation from sun interacts and influences
characteristics of environment on Earth and its
surrounding.
• Origins- Big bang 13.4 billion years ago
• Our galaxy - Milky way – mainly H2 and He
• Solar system – beginning as a cloud of
interstellar gas (mostly Hydrogen)..
 Solar system
• Origins- Big bang 13.4 billion years ago
• Ours galaxy - Milky way – mainly H2 and He
• Solar system – beginning as a cloud of
interstellar gas (mostly Hydrogen)..
• Sun has a major influence on the earth and
space surrounding it
• Radiation from sun interacts and influences
characteristics of environment on Earth and its
surroundings.
 Solar system (contd)
• Condensation of gas cloud at places probably
due to shockwave disturbances or galactic
wave front associated with spiraling arms of
galaxy, their coming together to form central
disk and revolving lumps of matter later
formed as planets and moons.
• Formation of sun as star due to increasing
density, pressure and temperature of matter at
centre of disc, triggering burst into nuclear
fusion.
• 4.6 billion years for evolution of solar system
 Solar system in the Milky way
• Planets in the plane of Sun’s equator (ecliptic)
• Asteroids between Jupiter and Mars
• Universe > 1 billion galaxies
• Our Galaxy ..200 billion stars
• Sun a typical star 30,000 light years away from galactic centre
(our galaxy is 100000 light years across)
• Sun’s orbit period 200 mi years (250 km/s orbit velocity). Mass
2X 1030 Kg , 78% Hydrogen, 20% Helium, 2% Heavier elements..
Mainly exist as plasma.
• Solar density 105 Kg/m3 at the core (100 times that of water) &
10-4 kg/m3 at photosphere
• Radius (at photo sphere) 696,000 km
• (contrast this with mass of earth : 6X1024 Kg & its radius 6378 km)
 Sun
• Rotation of Sun
• Variation dependent on latitude
• 25 days/ rotation at equator
• 30 days/rotation at poles

Please read basics of Space flight from

[Link]
There is chapter on solar system
 SUN
CONVECTIVE ZONE
1R Chromo sphere
Temp 15 [Link] H & He, 4500-8000, Red
Core Radiative
Zone CORONA (mil. of
0.2R miles, 106 K, X ray
0.8R source, Flares 107 K &
1,03R Hard Xrays

Photosphere (about 400km, UV

source, Sunspot time 4500 deg)
100km of atmospheric transparent
metallic reversing layer
 SOLAR RADIATION
• Electro magnetic
•High Energy solar particles

•Electro magnetic radiation - Property of sine wave

propagation
• Frequency, f = c/l, in units of hertz , & where
• c = velocity of light
•And l = wave length
•Black body radiation (BB = perfect radiator and
absorber)
• Energy radiated is function of Temp.
• ET = s T4 where ET = Energy radiated by Blackbody in
power output per unit area
• s is Stephan – Boltzmann Constant = 5.67 X 10-8
watts/ sq.m (deg. Kelvin)4
 Energy from Sun at Photosphere

Temperature = 6000 deg K

Es = 74.7 X106 watts/ sq. m
Total energy = Es X 4p rs2
Where rs is radius of sun at photosphere.
Earth’s distance from Sun, re is 149.5 X 106 km or
1AU
Solar energy at earth surface vicinity = Es X 4p rs2
Energy per unit area at earth’s distance from sun
= Ee = { Es X 4p rs2 } / 4p re2
= 1361 w/ sq m. (known as Solar constant)
 Wein’s displacement law
Wavelength corresponding to maximum energy output
of black body
l max (mm) = (2898.3)/ T deg. K
At 6000 deg K, Max energy wavelength = 0.483 mm
(yellow-green)

Planck’s Law
Distribution of black body radiation
El,T = 2hc2 / l5 [e hc/kTl -1]

K = Boltzmann constant = 5.67x10 -5 erg/ sqcm-sec-0K

h = Planck’s constant
Relative Energy Flux

104 Planck’s Law

SUN
10 2
6000K BB
Active Sun
1

10-2 Quiet Sun

10-4 EARTH

10-6 300K BB

.1 1 10 103 104
Wave length in micrometers
Energy rate radiated by a body into space
E = e s S T4
e= Emissivity of the body
s = Stephan Boltzmann Radiation
Constant = 5.67 x 10-5 erg/sqcm-sec-0K
T = Temp of emitting body 0K
S = Surface area

Energy absorption by the body:

p r2 Eb where Eb is energy flux rate at the
body/ unit area
 SOLAR MAGNETIC FIELD
Magnetic field strength at sun surface = 15G,

At mid latitudes Earth mag field is .5 G

Solar wind
( Unit (stream
of field ofGauss=
strength G= plasma particles)
100,000 gamma) and solar flares
cause dragging of magnetic field lines
This is super imposed by Sun’s rotation.
Propagation is 3 dimensional complex problem

Velocity of solar wind in the vicinity of earth 500 km/s

Density 5 particles/cc
Solar mag field strength on earth ~ 1/ 10000 times of
earth’s field
Solar wind extends beyond limit of solar system (100 AU)
 SOLAR CYCLE
Solar flares probably due to differential
rotation and trapped magnetic field lines
winding up due to differential rotation and
popping up and throwing plasma
Sun spots are darker patches of lower
temp. caused by lower gas pressure (due
to higher magnetic pressure occurring
again due to wound up field lines)
Max to Max cycle varies 7 – 13 years
Average 11 years
Min to max rise 4 years
Max to min fall 7 years
4. Orbital debris and its control
 Space debris
• Over 21,000 pieces of space trash larger than 10 cm
and half a million bits of junk between 1 cm and 10 cm
are estimated to circle the planet.
• There are also millions of pieces of debris smaller than 1
cm.
• More than 100 trillion artificial objects smaller 1 micron.
• The most heavily shielded spacecraft ever flown,
International Space Station changes its flight path if it is
expected to come within a few km of a large piece of
debris.
 Asteroid belt

MARS

JUPITER

Located roughly between the orbits of the planets Mars and Jupiter
Space debris
A computer-generated image representing space debris as could
be seen from high Earth orbit. The two main debris fields are the
ring of objects in geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) and the
cloud of objects in low Earth orbit (LEO).
 Studies on debris
• New studies followed as NASA, NORAD and others attempted to
better understand the orbital environment, with each adjusting
the number of pieces of debris in the critical-mass zone upward.
Although in 1981 the number of objects was estimated at
5,000,new detectors in the Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep
Space Surveillance System found new objects.
• By the late 1990s, it was thought that most of the 28,000
launched objects had already decayed and about 8,500 remained
in orbit. By 2005 this was adjusted upward to 13,000 objects, and
a 2006 study increased the number to 19,000 as a result of
an ASAT test and a satellite collision. In 2011, NASA said that
22,000 objects were being tracked.
• Note: Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT) are space weapons designed
to incapacitate or destroy satellites for strategic
military purposes.
 Types of Existing radars

A long-range
radar (Russian)
used to detect
and track space
objects
Debris “Control” / Prevention of damages
• Objects as small as about 10 cm can be seen by radars or optical
telescopes on Earth. When preparing a launch, mission controllers screen
the predicted post-launch orbit for potential collisions to avoid as much
damage as possible. Similarly, crafts such as the space shuttle and the
International Space Station can change their orbits if a larger object
approaches.
• ESA Tool: MASTER (Meteoroid and Space Debris Terrestrial Environment
Reference). MASTER uses sophisticated mathematical techniques to
determine impact.
• The ESA Interplanetary Meteoroid Model (IMEM) describes the resulting
meteoroid environment
• Long-term forecasts are required to determine future trends as a function
of individual mitigation actions. This kind of analysis can be performed
with ESA's DELTA tool (Debris Environment Long-Term Analysis).
 Debris removal
• Since 2012, the European Space Agency has
designed a mission to remove large space
debris from orbit. The mission, [Link], is
scheduled for launch by 2021 with an
objective to remove debris heavier than 4,000
kilograms from LEO.
• Several capture techniques are being studied,
including a net, a harpoon and a combination
robot arm and clamping mechanism.
 Debris removal attempt
• On 28 February 2014, Japan's Japan Aerospace
Exploration Agency (JAXA) launched a test "space net"
satellite. The launch was an operational test only.
• In December 2016 the country sent a space junk
collector via Kounotori 6 to the ISS by which JAXA
scientists experiment to pull junk out of orbit using a
tether.
• The system failed to extend a 700-meter tether from
a space station resupply vehicle that was returning to
Earth
5. Examples of typical specifications and tests to
be conducted before satellite launch
 MODEL PHILOSOPHY AND TEST & EVALUATION

• Subsystems which are newly developed should

have two models.
• For such subsystems qualification level tests are to
be carried out on the qualification model and the
acceptance level tests are recommended on the
flight model.
• Proven sub-systems with some modification shall
undergo protoflight level tests.
• Proven and repetitive packages can be subjected to
acceptance level tests.
 SUB-SYSTEM LEVEL TEST SEQUENCE

The test sequence shall be as per the T&E document of the respective
subsystem.

A typical example is given below:

• Initial bench Test – Function performance and interface

• EMI/EMC test – Complete test for qualification models. Tailored tests for
Protoflight models.
• Thermal / Thermal – vacuum soak – For qualification / Protoflight models
and optional for flight models (6 hrs + 6 hrs).
• Sine / Random Vibration tests
• Shock test - Need not be conducted on the flight model. Shall be conducted
on the qualification model.
• Thermal-Vacuum cycling and Soak test (Post vibration): Five short cycles
(2+2 hrs dwell) and one long cycle (24 + 24 hrs dwell) – For Qualification
Model/ Protoflight Models/ Flight Models.
• Final Bench Test - Function, Performance and Interface
 Tests on specific devices
• LIFE TESTS

• Life tests are conducted on mechanisms

which rotate
 Sample test specifications
• Vibration
– Sine Vibration:
– Amplitude :  10 %
– Random Vibration:
• PSD :  1.5 dB up to 300 Hz
• :  3 dB beyond 300 Hz
• Overall RMS :  10 %
• Duration : + 10 % / - 0 %

• Thermal
• Temperature : ± 3C
• Pressure
• Greater than 0.1 torr : ± 5%
• Lesser than 0.1 torr : ± 50%
 SPACECRAFT ENVIRONMENT

6. Test facilities generally required at subsystem

and spacecraft levels
 CLEAN ROOM
As an example he UR Rao Satellite Centre (URRSC)
(fFormerly ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC) has

100,000 class clean rooms and associated checkout

systems for assembly, integration & testing of
communication, navigation, earth observation and
space science satellites.

 Temperature of the clean room is maintained

at 220C +/- 10C

 Relative humidity level: 55 +/- 5%

Examples of some facilities
Ref: ISAC website
Examples of some facilities
Ref: ISAC website
Examples of some facilities
Ref: ISAC website
Spacecraft Dis-assembled Mode Test

Main Structure

Four equipment
panels
MEGHA-TROPIQUES IN CLEAN ROOM
MEGHA-TROPIQUES SPACECRAFT UNDER THERMO-VAC
TESTS IN 4M-FACILITY
ALL THE 4 PAYLOADS: MADRAS, SAPHIR, SCARAB AND ROSA

SCARAB ROSA

MADRAS SAPHIR
THANKS FOR YOUR ATTENTION
 Solar particle interaction with earth’s Mag. Field
• Magnetic axis - tilt of 11,5 deg with respect to
earth’s rotation axis
• Magnetic centre 436 km off from geo centre towards
Pacific
• Solar wind and magnetic field
Shock front at 14 earth radii distance on one side of
earth (of incoming solar wind side). Solar particles
deflected, slowed; magnetic field deforms due to
exchange of energy
• Magneto pause – boundary where magnetic forces
overcome dynamic forces of solar wind (stable
boundary unless solar flares change the state
• Magneto tail on the other side of earth extending to
60 Re (beyond moon distance)