Respiratory System
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Human Respiratory System
Functions:
– Works closely with circulatory system,
exchanging gases between air and blood:
• Takes up oxygen from air and supplies it to
blood (for cellular respiration).
• Removal and disposal of carbon dioxide
from blood (waste product from cellular
respiration).
Homeostatic Role:
– Regulates blood pH.
– Regulates blood oxygen and carbon dioxide
levels.
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Blood Transports
Gases Between
Lungs and Tissues
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General Features
• Divided into: conduction
and respiratory portions
• Air flow in the conduction
portion go through: nasal
cavity, nasopharynx,
oropharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and terminal
bronchioles
• Histologicaly organized
into mucosa, muscular, sub
mucosa and advetitia
layers
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The roof of the nasal cavity, the superior aspect of the nasal
septum, and the superior concha are covered by an olfactory
epithelium. The underlying lamina propria houses serous fluid–
secreting Bowman’s glands, a rich vascular plexus, and collections
of axons that arise from the olfactory cells of the olfactory
epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is composed of three types of
cells: olfactory,
Copyright sustentacular,
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Olfactory cells
Supporting cells
Basal cells
Brush Cells
Bowman's gland
Figure 15–1 Light micrograph of the human olfactory mucosa (×540). Observe that the olfactory cilia (Ci) are well represented and
that the connective tissue displays the presence of Bowman's glands. BC, basal cell; OC, olfactory cell; LP, lamina propria.
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Olfactory Epithelium
• Brush cells - specialised for transduction of general
sensation. Nerve fibres are terminal branches of CN V.
• Olfactory cells - The olfactory cells of the epithelium
are bipolar neurons which congregate to form the CN I.
• Basal cells - are stem cells capable of division and
differentiation into either supporting or olfactory cells
• Supporting cells - metabolic and physical support for
the olfactory cells
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Larynx
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Larynx
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Larynx
• Routes food and air down their correct passages.
• Contains the vocal cords, which function in voice production.
• Structure
– Arrangement of 9 cartilages connected by membranes and ligaments and lined
by respiratory epithelium.
– Cartilages include thyroid, cricoid, epiglottis and 3 small paired cartilages.
– All cartilages are hyaline with the exception of the epiglottis, which is elastic
cartilage.
– Thyroid cartilage is the largest and its midline laryngeal prominence is the
male “Adam’s apple.”
– Inferior to the thyroid is the signet-ring shaped cricoid cartilage.
– The 3 pairs of small cartilages form much of the posterior and lateral larynx.
– The epiglottis extends from the base of the tongue to its hinge on the superior
thyroid cartilage. During swallowing, the epiglottis tips and covers the
entrance to the larynx and ensures that food enters the esophagus.
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Trachea
• Mucosa layer – respiratory epithelium:
ciliated pseudostratified (~30%)
epithelium with goblet cells (~30%).
Contains also brush cells with
microvilli (sensory?). Endocrine cells
which secrets hormones and
catecholamines. The remaining ~30%
are basal cells which act as stem cells
for the epithelium. Lamina propria
consists of collagen and elastic fibers.
• Submucosa layer – seromucous glands
surrounds by collagen and elastic
fibers.
• Adventitia layer - C-shaped hyaline
cartilage surrounds by collagen and
elastic fibers.
• Muscular layer – consists of smooth
muscle bridges the gap between free
ends of C-shaped cartilage.
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Bronchi
• The trachea divides into the two
primary bronchi, which enter the lung
at the hilum. These primary bronchi
divide into smaller secondary bronchi
(3 in the right lung, 2 in the left lung).
The extrapulmonary bronchi have a
similar histological appearance to that
of the trachea. The intrapulmonary
bronchi (lobar bronchi) have irregular
plates of hyaline cartilage (instead of
C-shaped rings). In transverse section
these appear as small oval or crescent-
shaped plates or islands of cartilage. As
the bronchi become smaller, the bands
of smooth muscle in the wall become
more prominent. The lamina propria
of the bronchi has abundant elastic
fibers.
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Φ>1mm
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Terminal Bronchiole
• terminal bronchioles. These have a diameter
less than 1mm and lack cartilage in their walls.
They lack glands in the mucosa. Goblet cells
are virtually absent and if present are only
found in very small numbers in the initial
segments. A simple ciliated columnar or
cuboidal epithelium lines the terminal
bronchioles. (In the initial segments of the
largest bronchioles, it may be
pseudostratified).
• The lamina propria of the terminal
bronchioles contains relative large amounts of
smooth muscle and elastic fibers. These
smooth muscles contract and severely restrict
air-flow during asthmatic attacks. Asthmatics
use drugs that stimulate the sympathetic
innervation of the smooth muscle and cause
their relaxation resulting in distention of the
bronchiolar diameter.
• Clara cell replace goblet cell
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Clara cells
• Clara cells (non-ciliated
secretory cells) are dome-like
cells located between the
ciliated cells. They secrete
glycosaminoglycans in response
to chemical irritation (also anti-
inflammatory (protein CC-16 ).
Detoxify substances like
nitrogen- dioxide. Secrets
surfactant like material and
photolytic enzymes. Involved in
transport of water and
electrolytes especially Cl ions.
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Cells in Conducting portion
a) ciliated cells
b) mucous goblet cells
c) brush cells (sensors?)
d) basal (short) cells
e) small granule cells
(bronchial Kulchitsky
cells)
thought to have
neuroendocrine function
(similar to enteroendocrine
cell of gut (serotonin)
(peristaltic?))
f) Clara cells
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Blood supply
• Pulmonary veins carry
blood to left atrium they
run in the pulmonary
septum
• Pulmonary arteries carry
deoxygenated blood and
travel with the air ways
• Bronchial arteries carry
oxygenated blood supply
nutrient to the mucosa of
the airways
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Respiratory portion
• In this portion blood air
gas exchange occurs
• Respiratory bronchioles,
alveolar ducts, alveoli
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Respiratory portion
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Respiratory Bronchiole
• These are short tubes
regarded as areas of transition
between the conducting and
respiratory portions of the
respiratory system. The
diameter of the respiratory
bronchioles is about 0.5mm.
The lining epithelium is
simple cuboidal and non-
ciliated. They have no
cartilage in their walls. They
lack goblet cells.
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Respiratory portion of the lung
Alveolar Duct
Alveolar Sac
Alveoli - ~Φ250um
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Cells
• The alveolar "wall" is composed of three main cell types:
• Endothelial cells of blood capillaries (continuous, non-
fenestrated)
• Squamous epithelial cells (Type I)
• Secretory cells (Type II, great alveolar cells)
• The alveolar "wall" is extremely thin. The total thickness of the
alveolar "wall" for gas exchange is only about 0.2-0.6 um. A
common basal lamina is found between the alveolar cells and the
endothelial cells.
The squamous epithelial cells, which constitute the main cell type
of the alveoli, are as the name implies extremely thin.
The alveolar secretory cells (Type II) are large rounded cells,
which synthesize and secrete surfactant. Surfactant is a
phospholipid (dipalmitoyl lecithin), which reduces the surface
tension of alveoli. Without surfactant the alveoli collapse and
cannot function.
• Alveolar macrophages
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Alveoli Structure & Function
• i) surface tension of alveolar
wall decreased by presence of
pulmonary surfactant
• ii) elastic fibers in alveolar
interstitium allows for elastic
recoil of alveolar sac during
expiration
• iii) contractile cells in
interstitium can contract and
reduce sac volume
• iv) alveolar pores between sacs
equalizes pressure gradient
between sacs
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EM of gas exchange area
• En – Endothelial
(Pneumocyte Type I)
(40%)
• N – Pneumocyte II MB
(60%)
– MB multilamelar
bodies (surfactant)
• A – Alveoli
• F – collagen fiber
• C- capillaries
• E – elastic fibers
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blood-gas barrier
alveoli (a), attenuated type I pneumocytes (ep), fused basal laminae (b),
attenuated endothelial cell of the capillary (en) with pinocytotic vesicles
(arrows), plasma (p), and an erythrocyte (r) within the capillary lumen.
Copyright 2007 by Saunders/Elsevier. All rights reserved.
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Enables the air to pass from
alveolus to another
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Summery
Mucus
Simple Columnar Clara myofibroblast
Simple Cuboidal cells
Simple Squamous
Copyright 2007 by Saunders/Elsevier. All rights reserved. 140m2
Cystic Fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the most common, fatal genetic disease
affecting young Canadians. CF is a multi-organ disease
affecting primarily the lungs and the digestive system. In the
lungs, CF causes severe breathing problems. A build-up of
thick mucus makes it difficult to clear bacteria and leads to
cycles of infection and inflammation, which damage the
delicate lung tissues.
In the digestive tract, CF makes it extremely difficult to digest
and absorb adequate nutrients from food. Thick mucus blocks
the ducts of the pancreas, preventing enzymes from reaching
the intestines to digest food. Therefore, persons with CF must
consume a large number of artificial enzymes (on average 20
pills a day) with every meal and snack, to help them absorb
adequate nutrition from their food.
Canadian Cystic
Copyright 2007 by Fibrosis
Saunders/Elsevier. Foundation
All rights reserved.
