MARXISM

Marxism derives its name from that of Karl Marx, a famous German economist and
social philosopher of the nineteenth century who is the chief exponent of this theory.
Along Liberalism, Marxism is one of the most important philosophy at that time.

Liberalism, Idealism and Marxism are the three important theories of

Political Science.

C.L Wayper has divided various views regarding the state into three parts, viz., the
state as a machine, as an organism and as a class. In other words, the organic view of
the state, the mechanistic view of the state and the class view of the state.

The organic view is idealism, the mechanistic view is liberalism and the class view is
Marxism. The main principles of Marxism, are seven, viz.,
Dialectical Materialism, Historical Materialism, Theory of Surplus Value, Class
Struggle, Revolution, Dictatorship of the Proletariat and Communism.
Marxism first appeared in the middle of the nineteenth century in response to the
oppressive conditions created by the capitalist system. It will be recalled that liberalism
arose in late seventeenth century as a philosophy of human freedom, but by the
middle of the nineteenth century it had become clear that the form of liberalism, with
its doctrine of laissez-faire and free market economy, had failed to create a conditions
of human freedom. Liberalism had achieved a goal of establishing capitalism under
which a tiny class of capitalists enjoyed special power and privileges at the expense of
the large majority of the working class. The tremendous increase of wealth was
cornered by a small section which happened to own the means of social production .
The working class were living under the constant threats of insecurity, malnutrition,
discomfort, disease and death.
Marxism may be defined as a set of political and economic principles founded by Karl
Marx and Friedrich Engels in order to lay scientific foundations of socialism. It seeks
to understand the problem of human society through historical analysis . The conflict
arises from the faults in the mode of production in which one class come to gain
ownership and control of the means of production in which one class come to gain
ownership and control of the means of production and exploited the working class to
earn more and more profit.
 “DIALECTICAL METHOD”

Karl Marx borrowed his dialectical method from German Philosopher G.W.F Hegel and
sough to combine it with his materialism. Hegel had postulated that
‘idea’ or ‘consciousness’ was the essence of the universe, and that all social
institutions were the manifestations of the changing forms of idea. Idea evolved into
new forms because its inherent tension, clash between thesis ( Partial truth) and
antithesis (against the partial truth).

Karl Marx believed that ‘matter’ (not idea) was the essence of universe and the social
institutions were the manifestation of changing material conditions. Engels postulated
three laws of material dialectical materialism:

• The transformation of quantity into quality.

• The interpenetration of opposites.
• The negation of negation.
Society, polity, economy are in this superstructure which is shaped by the
prevalent dominant ideas of the age. Marx replaced idea with matter.
According to Marx, the material or the economic forces are in the substructure
and the idea is a part of the superstructure. Idea is the reflection of material
forces. Thus, Marx has reversed the position of idea and matter.

The base or the substructure consists of the forces of production and the
relations of production. These two together constitute the mode of
production.
When there is a change in the forces of production because of development in
technology, it brings changes in the relations of production. Thus, a change in
the mode of production brings a corresponding change in the superstructure.
Society, polity, religion, morals, values, norms, etc. are a part of the
superstructure and shaped by the mode of production.
 HISTORICAL MATERIALISM

While Dialectical materialism represents the philosophical basis of Marxism,

Historical materialism represents its scientific basis. Historical materialism is the
application of dialectical materialism to the interpretation of history. It is the economic
interpretation of world history by applying the Marxian methodology of dialectical
materialism. The world history has been divided into four stages:
Primitive Communism, the Slavery System, Feudalism and Capitalism.

• Primitive communism refers to the earliest part of human history. It was a

Property less, Exploitation less, Classless and Stateless society. Means of production
were backward, because technology was undeveloped. The community owned the
means of production. They were not under private ownership and so there was no
exploitation. Production was limited and meant for self-consumption. There was no
surplus production and so there was no private property. Since there was no private
property, there was no exploitation. Since there was no exploitation, there was no
class division. Since there was no class division, there was no class struggle. Since
there was no class struggle, there was no state.
Technology is not static; it evolves continuously. Technological development results in
the improvement of production. This leads to surplus production, which results in the
emergence of private property. Means of production are now not under the
community, but private ownership. Society is, thus, divided into Property Owning and
Property less Classes. Class division in society and exploitation lead to class struggle.
Since there is class struggle, the dominant class, that is the property owning class
creates an institution called the state to suppress the dissent of the dependent class,
that is the property less class. Thus, the state is a class instrument and a coercive
institution. It protects the interests of its creator, that is the property owning class.
• In the beginning, this society is divided into Masters and Slaves.
Masters are the haves and the slaves are the have nots. The slaves carry out all the
production work. The masters live on the labour of slaves. They exploit the slaves and
whenever the slaves resent, the state comes to the rescue of the masters. Thus, the
state serves the interests of the master class. It uses its coercive powers to suppress
the voice of the slaves. The slave system is succeeded by feudalism. Technological
development leads to changes in the means of production and this brings about
corresponding changes in the relations of production and the superstructure. The
slave system is replaced by the feudal mode of production and it is reflected in the
society, polity, morality and the value system.
 THEORY OF CLASS STRUGGLE

According to Marx, the history of all hitherto existing society has been the history of class
struggle. Except the primitive communist stage, all historical ages have been
characterized by the dominant and dependent classes or the haves and the have nots.
This antagonism is caused by class contradictions; it is the result of exploitation by the
property owning class of the property less class. In the slavery system, they were the
masters and the slaves, in feudalism, the feudal lords and the peasants and in
capitalism, the bourgeois and the proletariat.

The masters, the feudal lords and the bourgeois are the owners of the means of
production. However, it is the slaves, the peasants and the proletariat, who carry out
production, but their produce is taken away by their exploiters and in return, they are
given just enough for their survival. By virtue of the ownership of the means of
production, the property owning class exploits the property less class. This is the main
source and cause of class struggle. No compromise is possible between the contending
classes.
 THEORY OF REVOLUTION

Class struggle paves the way for revolution. Intensification of class struggle prepares the ground for
revolution. Class struggle is a long drawn affair, but revolution is short, swift and violent. In the words
of Marx, ‘revolution is the indispensable mid-wife of social change’.
Transition from one historical stage to another occurs through revolution.

Feudal revolution brought an end to the Slavery system; the Bourgeois revolution ended Feudalism
and the Proletariat revolution will bring an end to capitalism. Thus, any epoch making social change
is always brought about by a revolution.

Revolution occurs when there is incompatibility between the means or forces of production and the
relations of production. Technological development brings changes in the means of production. The
handmill gives you a society with the feudal lord, and the steam-mill, a society with the industrial
capitalist.

Proletarian revolution will be the last revolution in the annals of history. Revolution occurs to resolve
contradictions. So revolution will not take place, if there is no contradiction in society. After the
proletarian revolution, there will not be any further revolution, because there will be no contradiction.
However, revolution will take place only when the forces of production have fully matured. Revolution
cannot be advanced or postponed. It will occur when the forces of production have matured and do
not match the relations of production. Revolution brings an end to this mismatch.
 THEORY OF SURPLUS VALUE

Marx has developed the theory of surplus value to explain the exploitation in the capitalist society.
Here, Marx was influenced by the theories of classical economists. He subscribed to the labour
theory of value. The value of a commodity is determined by the amount of labour consumed in its
production. Labour is also a commodity. It can be bought and sold like other commodities. Out of
the four factors of production, labour is the most vital. In its absence, the other factors of
production are useless. Land, Capital and Organisation are the other factors of production. It is the
application of labour to these factors of production, which makes them productive. In the absence
of labour, they are sterile.

If a wage is paid in proportion to the amount of value created by a labourer, then there is no
exploitation, But this is not the case in capitalism. Labour is unique in the sense that it creates
more value than is required for its maintenance. The difference between the value created by the
worker and the value paid to the worker, as wages, constitute the surplus value and the profit of
the capitalist. For instance, if a worker has created a value of say Rs. 25,000 in a month and has
been paid Rs. 15,000 as wages, then the remaining Rs. 10,000 will constitute the profit of the
capitalist. Thus, the worker always creates more value than he is actually paid. This surplus value
created by the worker is the profit of the bourgeois, which has been defended by the classical
economist, because it leads to capital accumulation, which is invested further in new industries
and enterprises and leads to growth and prosperity. For the Marxists, it is the exploitation of the
workers, which has to be abolished.
With the growth of capitalism and the rise in competition, the wages of the
workers continue to fall and reach the stage of subsistence level. Subsistence
wage is the minimum possible wage; beyond this the wage cannot be reduced.
It is the minimum possible wage for the survival and perpetuation of the labour
force. Thus, cut throat competition in capitalism leads to deterioration of the lot
of the proletariat. This intensifies class struggle and eventually leads to
revolution.
 COMMUNISM

Under dictatorship of the proletariat, the socialist state will blossom forth into
communism. Socialism is a transitory stage. It will pave the way for the eventual
emergence of communism, which is stable and permanent. This will be the phase of
social evolution. After the establishment of communism, there will be no further social
change. There will be no class contradictions and so, no class struggle. Infact communism
will be a
“Classless, Stateless, Private Property less and Exploitation less society.”

In a communist society, there will be no private property in the form of private

ownership of the means of production. The means of production will be under the
ownership of the community. Cooperation and not cutthroat competition will be the
basis of communist society. Production will be for consumption and not to earn profit.
Profit motive will be replaced by social needs. Since there will be no private property,
there will be no exploitation. Since there will be no exploitation, there will be no class
division, no property owning and property less class, no haves and have nots or no
dominant and dependent class. Since there is no class division, there is no class struggle
and so no need of the state. This is the reason why a communist society will be a
classless and stateless society.
 Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism

Socialism is further divided into Evolutionary and Revolutionary socialism.

Evolutionary socialism does not believe in revolution and wants to attain socialism
through peaceful means. Evolutionary Socialists have faith in parliamentary
democracy and want to bring social change through the ballot. They opposed to a
violent revolution. They also do not subscribe to the dictatorship of the proletariat
and advocate a peaceful democratic transition from a class divided to a classless
society. Fabian Socialism, Guild Socialism, Democratic Socialism are all various
types of evolutionary socialism.

Revolutionary socialism, on the other hand, believes in class struggle, revolution

and the dictatorship of the proletariat. According to them, social change cannot
be peaceful. It has to be violent. A peaceful revolution is a contradiction in terms.
Revolution is the midwife of social change, and this revolution must be violent.
Revolutionary Marxism is generally identified with the scientific socialism of Karl
Marx. Syndicalism is also a type of revolutionary socialism.