PHASE DIAGRAMS

COOLING CURVE- For Pure Metal

COOLING CURVE- FOR ALLOYS
 Cooling Curve of Iron-Carbon System
• Pure iron when heated experiences 2
changes in crystal structure before it melts.
• At room temperature the stable form, ferrite
(a iron) has a BCC crystal structure.
• Ferrite experiences a polymorphic
transformation to FCC austenite (g iron) at
912 ˚C (1674 ˚F).
• At 1394˚C (2541˚F) austenite reverts back to
BCC phase d ferrite and melts at 1538 ˚C
(2800 ˚F).
• Iron carbide (cementite or Fe3C) an
intermediate compound is formed at 6.7 wt
% C.
• Typically, all steels and cast irons have carbon
contents less than 6.7 wt% C.
• Carbon is an interstitial impurity in iron and
forms a solid solution with the a, g, d
phases.

4
Cooling Curves for Binary system
Phase Diagram for binary system
 Binary Isomorphous Systems (III)
In one-component system melting occurs at a well-defined melting temperature.
In multi-component systems melting occurs over the range of temperatures, between the
solidus and liquidus lines.
Solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium in this temperature range.
Phase Diagram for Binary Eutectic
system
 Binary Eutectic Systems (II)

Three single phase regions (a – solid solution of Ag in Cu matrix, b = solid solution of Cu

in Ag marix, L - liquid)
Three two-phase regions (a + L, b +L, a+b)
Solvus line separates one solid solution from a mixture ofsolid solutions.
Solvus line shows limit of solubility
 Cu-Zn System (Brass)
c10f19

Cartridge brass:
70 wt% Cu
 Eutectoid Peritectic
& Peritectic
transformation  + L

Cu-Zn Phase diagram

Eutectoid transformation  +

11
• TERNARY Phase Diagram

• 1. 60% A | 20% B | 20% C = 100%

2. 25% A | 40% B | 35% C = 100%
3. 10% A | 70% B | 20% C = 100%
4. 0.0% A | 25% B | 75% C = 100%
 SUMMARY
• Phase diagrams are useful tools to determine:

--the number and types of phases,

--the wt% of each phase,
--and the composition of each phase
for a given T and composition of the system.

• Alloying to produce a solid solution usually

--increases the tensile strength (TS)

--decreases the ductility.
• Binary eutectics and binary eutectoids allow for
a range of microstructures.

26
IRON-IRON CARBIDE SYSTEM
Fe-Carbon Diagram
Iron-Carbon System
c10f28
IRON CARBON CONSTITUTIONAL DIAGRAM-II
4 Solid Phases
 Eutectoid reaction:
Pearlite
g
↔
a + Fe3C
c10f30

Redistribution of carbon by diffusion

Austenite – 0.76 wt% C
Ferrite - 0.022 wt% C
Cementite - 6.70 wt% C
PHASE COMPOSITIONS OF THE IRON-
CARBON ALLOYS AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE

Hypoeutectoid steels (carbon content from 0 to 0.83%) consist of primary

proeutectoid) ferrite (according to the curve A3) and pearlite.

Eutectoid steel (carbon content 0.83%) entirely consists of pearlite.

Hypereutectoid steels (carbon content from 0.83 to 2.06%) consist of primary

(proeutectoid) cementite (according to the curve ACM) and pearlite.

Cast irons (carbon content from 2.06% to 4.3%) consist of proeutectoid

cementite C2 ejected from austenite according to the curve ACM , pearlite and
transformed ledeburite (ledeburite in which austenite transformed to pearlite.
 CRITICAL TEMPERATURE
 Upper critical temperature (point) A3 is the temperature, below which ferrite
starts to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypoeutectoid alloys.

 Upper critical temperature (point) ACM is the temperature, below which

cementite starts to form as a result of ejection from austenite in the hypereutectoid
alloys.

 Lower critical temperature (point) A1 is the temperature of the austenite-to-

pearlite eutectoid transformation. Below this temperature austenite does not exist.

 Magnetic transformation temperature A2 is the temperature below which α-

ferrite is ferromagnetic.
AUSTENITE PEARLITE
 Alloys of Iron with carbon

Percentage of carbon

Wrought iron 0 to0.05

Steel 0.05 to 2.0
Cast iron 2 to 6.67
Different phases of Iron-Iron Carbide system
• α (alpha) –Ferrite
It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in iron
 The maximum solubility of carbon in α at room
temperature is 0.008 percent and 0.022 percent
at 7230 C
 Ferrite is soft, ductile and relatively low in
strength
 Tensile strength 2800 Kg/mm2
Elongation 40 percent in 50 mm
Hardness is very less (less than Rockwell C 0 or B90)
• γ (Gamma) –Austenite
• Austenite is denser than ferrite
• It is interstitial solid solution carbon in FCC iron
• The maximum solubility of carbon in iron up to
2.14 percent at 1147 0 C
• It is soft, ductile, malleable and non magnetic
Cementite (Fe3C) / Iron Carbide
The maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 6.67
percent
It is extremely hard, brittle and ductility is very less
PEARLITE Ferrite + cementite -----α+ Fe3C
LEDEBURITE Austenite+ cementite --- γ+ Fe3C
TTT DIAGRAM
Possible transformation involving Austenite Decomposition
As indicated when is cooled to temperatures below LCT, it transforms to other
crystal structures due to its unstable nature. A specific cooling rate may be chosen so
that the transformation of austenite can be 50 %, 100 % etc. If the cooling rate is
very slow such as annealing process, the cooling curve passes through the entire
transformation area and the end product of this the cooling process becomes 100%
Pearlite. In other words, when slow cooling is applied, all the Austenite will
transform to Pearlite. If the cooling curve passes through the middle of the
transformation area, the end product is 50 % Austenite and 50 % Pearlite, which
means that at certain cooling rates we can retain part of the Austenite, without
transforming it into Pearlite.

Upper half of TTT Diagram(Austenite-Pearlite

Transformation Area)
 If a cooling rate is very high, the cooling curve will remain on the left
hand side of the Transformation Start curve. In this case all Austenite will
transform to Martensite. If there is no interruption in cooling the end
product will be martensite.

Lower half of TTT Diagram (Austenite-Martensite and

Bainite Transformation Areas)
MICROSTRUCTURE OF AUSTENITE
 MICROSTRUCTURE OF PEARLITE

Photomicrographs of (a) coarse pearlite and (b) fine pearlite. 3000X

MICROSTRUCTURE OF MARTENSITE
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS
Heat treatment of steel may be defined as heating
and cooling operations applied to steel in order to
obtain desired properties
The purpose of heat treatment may be one or more
of the following properties
 To relieve internal or residual stresses
 To improve hardness and tensile strength
 To refine grains : Hall-Petch equation σ = k / (d)1/2
 To improve ductility and toughness
 To change the electrical and magnetic properties
 To produce special micro structures to increase the
machinability and corrosion resistance
Relieving of residual stresses
• ANNEALING
• NORMALIZING
Increasing the Hardness
• HARDENING
• TEMPERING
Heat Treatment Process Variables
Temperature to which the metal or alloy is heated
Time period (Soaking time or Holding time)
Rate of heating or cooling
The quenching (cooling) medium used
SPHERODIZING
Any process of heating and cooling steel that produces a rounded or globular form of
carbide. The spheroidizing methods generally used are:
a.) Prolonged heating at a temperature just below the lower critical temperature,
usually followed by relatively slow cooling.
b.) In the case of small objects of high carbon steels, the spheroidizing result is
achieved more rapidly by prolonged heating to temperatures alternately within and
slightly below the critical temperature range. c. Tool steel is generally spheroidized by
heating to a temperature of 749°-804°C (1380° 1480°F) for carbon steels and higher
for many alloy tool steels, holding at heat from 1 to 4 hours, and cooling slowly in the
furnace.
ANNEALING Heating the steel above 30-50 0 C of A3 temp(910 0 C) for hypo-
eutectoid steel and 30-50 0 C of A31 temp for hypo- eutectoid steel for a soking
time of 60 minutes.
Slowly cool to room temperature usually in the furnace itself (very slow cooling: 0
to 1 0 F
NORMALIZING
Normalizing is a type of heat treatment applicable to ferrous metals only. It
differs from annealing in that the metal is heated to a higher temperature and
then removed from the furnace for air cooling. The purpose of normalizing is
to remove the internal stresses induced by heat treating, welding, casting,
forging, forming, or machining. Stress, if not controlled, leads to metal
failure; therefore, before hardening steel, you should normalize it first to
ensure the maximum desired results. Usually, low-carbon steels do not re-
quire normalizing; however, if these steels are normalized, no harmful effects
result. Castings are usually annealed, rather than normalized; however, some
castings require the normalizing treatment.
 HARDENING PROCESS
Purpose of hardening
 To develop high hardness
 To improve strength and wear resistance
Hardening Process
Step:1
Steel is heated to the austenitic temperature
(above A3 - 910 oC) and kept for 15 to 30 minutes per
25 mm of cross-section-This process mechanism is called
out -of -equilibrium state
Step:2
Rapidly cool in the quenching medium

A new structure is formed called MARTENSITE

Some industrial Quenching media
 5 to 10 percent Caustic soda ------ very drastic quench
 5 to 20 percent brine (NaCl)
 Cold water
 Warm water
 Mineral water (obtained during the refining of crude
petroleum)
 Animal oil
 Vegetable oil (such as linseed, cotton seed and
rapeseed)
 Air------- Least drastic quench
Water is preferred- when hardening plain carbon steels
Oils are suitable- for quenching alloy steels
 Micro Structure of Hardened Steel
 A very rapid rate of cooling transforms austenite
in to martensite
 Slower rate of cooling fine pearlite
 Slowest rate of cooling gives rise to coarse pearlite
QUENCH CRACKS
 During quenching the surface of the component
cools rapidly and the centre cools slowly
This results in a non-uniform changes in volume
causes heavy distortion and finally, cracking of the
components
CAUSES OF QUENCHING CRACKS
• Quenching from high temperature to lower
temperature suddenly
• Improper selection of quenching medium
• Delays caused between hardening and tempering
TEMPERING
 After quenching the tensile strength is maximum and
the toughness is minimum
 A steel, hardened as a result of quenching, is reheated
to a temperature below the A1 line (723oC) in order to
modify the martenstic structure of steel.
 Higher the tempering temperature, lower the tensile
strength and higher the toughness
TYPES OF TEMPERING
Low temperature tempering (100 oC- 200oC for
60 min)- hardness obtained Rc 60-64
Medium temperature tempering (200 oC- 300oC
for 60 min)- hardness obtained Rc 40-60
High temperature tempering (300 oC- 600oC for
60 min)- hardness obtained Rc 20-40
• FACTORS ACTING ON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
STEELS
• GRAIN SIZE

• HEATTREATMENT

• COMPOSITION (ALLOYING ELEMENTS)

Chemical elements added in the steel is called
alloying elements
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Alloy Steel
Advantages:
• Greater hardenability
• Less distortion and cracking
• Greater ductility at high strength
• Greater high temperature strength
• Greater stress relief at given hardness
• Better machinability at high hardness
• High elastic ratio and endurance strength.

Disadvantages:
• Tendency toward austenite retention
• Cost
• Special handling
• Temper brittleness in certain grades.
• 1) Killed steel:
It is produced by involving the use of several deoxidizing
elements which act with varying intensities.
The common of these are silicon and aluminum.
• Killed steel, because of greater uniformity in chemical
composition and soundness is used for forging, carburizing
, heat treatment and other applications.
• They are strongly de oxidised and are characterized by
high composition and property uniformity.
• All forging steels and in general, all steels containing more
than 0.25% carbon are killed.
• These types of steels are free from blow holes and
segregation.
• Symbol K stands for killed steel.
• 2) Semi Killed steel:
• It has characteristics intermediate those of killed
or rimmed steels.
• Structural steels containing 0.15 to 0.25% carbon
are generally semi-killed.
• In semi-killed steel, the aim is to produce metal
free from surface blowhole and pipe.
• The surface should have a sound kin of
considerable thickness.
• They are used for general structural applications.
• 3 Rimmed Steel
• The steel is partially deoxidized. Carbon content
is less than 0.25% and manganese content is less
than 0.6%.
• They do not retain any significant percentage of
highly oxidizable elements such as Aluminum,
silicon or titanium.
• These steel are, therefore ideal for rolling, large
number of applications, and is adapted to cold-
bending, cold-forming and cold header
applications.
PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF
METALS
If failure is considered as change in desired performance*- which could involve changes in
properties and/or shape; then failure can occur by many mechanisms as below.

Mechanisms / Methods by which a can Material can FAIL

Elastic deformation

Creep Chemical / Physical

Fatigue Electro-chemical degradation
Plastic Fracture degradation
deformation
Microstructural
Twinning changes
Wear
Slip Twinning
Corrosion Erosion
Phase transformations
Oxidation
Grain growth

Particle coarsening

* Beyond a certain limit

 Brief Introduction to Twinning
Definition of Twinning:
• Occurs as a result of shearing across particular lattice
planes
• A region of a crystal in
which the orientation of the
lattice is a mirror image of
the rest of the crystal.

Two basic plastic processes:

• Slip
• Twinning

Twinning compared to slip:

• More complicated deformation than slip
• Twinning produces a volume fraction of the grain with a very
different orientation compared to the rest of the grain
 DISLOCATIONS
Formation of a step on the surface of a crystal by the motion of (a)
edge dislocation and (b) screw dislocation.
How does a dislocation move?
Deformation in a single crystal
• For a single crystal in tension,
slip will occur along a
number of equivalent and
most favorably oriented
planes and directions at
various positions along the
specimen.
• Each step results from the
movement of a large number
of dislocations along the
same slip plane.
55
Resolved Shear Stress, tR
c08f07 

 R = 0
=90°

R =/2
=45° 
=45°

R = 0
=90°

R  cos  cos  56
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
Condition for dislocation motion:  R crss
 R cos  cos 
• In response to an applied tensile or compressive
stress, slip (dislocation movement) in a single crystal begins
when the resolved shear stress reaches some
critical value, tcrss.
• It represents the minimum shear stress required
to initiate slip and is a property of the material
that determines when yielding occurs.
crss
y 
(cos  cos  ) max
57
 Dislocation Motion in Polycrystals

• On the surface of a polished single crystal,
these steps appear as lines (slip lines).
• Slip planes & directions (l, f) change from
one crystal to another.
• tR will vary from one crystal to another.
• The crystal with the largest tR yields first.
• Other (less favorably oriented) crystals yield
later.

300 mm

Polycrystalline Copper 58
 Deformation by Twinning
c08f12

• In addition to slip (dislocation movement), plastic deformation can occur

by twinning.
• A shear force can produce atomic displacements so that on one
side of the plane (the twin boundary), atoms are located in mirror
image positions to atoms on the other side.
• Twinning may favorably reorient slip systems to promote
dislocation movement. 59
TESTING OF MATERIALS
 TESTING OF MATERIALS –
to determine the MECHANICAL
PRPERTIES
Mechanical properties- characteristics of material that
describe its behaviour under the action of external
forces
OBJECTIVES
The knowledge of mechanical properties is
very essential to construct a good structure such as
bridge, off shore platforms etc
Mechanical properties can be determined by
conducting experimental tests on the material
specimen
 DIFFERENT MECHANICAL TESTS
• TENSILE TESTING
• COMPRESSION TESTING
• HARDNESS TESTING
• IMPACT TESTING
 Schematic s-e and - curves  These are simplified schematics which are close to the
curves obtained for some metallic materials like Al, Cu
etc. (polycrystalline materials at room temperature).
 Many materials (e.g. steel) may have curves which are
qualitatively very different from these schematics.
 Most ceramics are brittle with very little plastic
deformation.
 Even these diagrams are not to scale as the strain at
yield is ~0.001 (eelastic ~10–3)
[E is measured in GPa and y in MPa  thus giving
this small strains]
 the linear portion is practically vertical and stuck to
the Y-axis (when efracture and eelastic is drawn to the same
scale).
Note the increasing stress required
for continued plastic deformation

Schematics: not to
formation gained from the test: scale
Young’s modulus
) Yield stress (or proof stress)
Neck
i) Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS)
v) Fracture stress

TS- Ultimate Tensile Strength

ubscripts:
y- yield, F,f- fracture,
uniform (for strain)/ultimate (for stress)

Points and regions of the curves are explained in the next slide
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM of DUCTILE
MATERIAL (MILD STEEL)
 COMPRESSION TESTING
• Compression test is carried out on
the brittle materials ( such as
concrete, cast iron, Bricks) to know
the compressive strength, fracture
strength
• It is also carried out on ductile
materials to know the malleability
 Hardness Measurement
• It is defined as the resistance offered by
metals to indentation ( i.e penetration of a
hard object in to the specimen under test)
TYPES OF HARDNESS MEASUREMENT
METHODS
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
VICKER’S HARDNESS TEST
KNOOP HARDNESS TEST
1 BRINELL HRDNESS TEST
Forcing a hardened steel ball1,2,5 or 10 mm in diameter, at
a constant load into a flat surface of the metal for 10 to 15
sec
It is denoted in number – Brinell Hardness Number (Bhn)
P- Constant load ;D- Ball diameter;
d- diameter of the impression
• Relationship between Ultimate Tensile strength
(UTS) and Brinell hardness number (Bhn)
UTS (Mpa)= 3.5 Bhn
2. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
 It uses either a diamond cone or hardened steel
ball as the indenter
 Two scales are there for measurement
 B-scales (denoted by HRB) for Copper alloys,
aluminium alloys, soft steels
 C-scales(denoted by HRC) for steel, hardened
steel, hard cast iron
 3 VICKER’S HARDNESS
 The indenter used here, consists of a diamond
in the form of a squarebased pyramid with an
included angle of 1360 between the opposite
faces.

HV= 1.854 ( F/d2 )

where F= Applied load in Kg-f
d= Arithmetic mean of the
two
diagonals d1 and d2
 4 KNOOP HARDNESS TEST
Pyramid based diamond indenter
KHN= 14.22 (P/l2)
where
P= Applied load, Kg-f
l=length of longitudinal diagonal, mm
 IMPACT TEST (ASTM E208)
• To know the impact resistance ( Toughness)-
resistance during shock loading
• Useful in determining the ductile to brittle
transition (DBT) temperature of materials
• To know the sensitivity to surface defects
( notch sensitivity) as it lowers impact
toughness
TYPES
IZOD IMPACT TEST
CHARPY IMPACT TEST
Comparison of Toughness values
 FACTORS AFFECTING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

• ALLOY CONTENT- Tungsten, Chromium

• Grain Size

• Working/ Forming- whether cold working or

hot working

• Manufacturing defects- such as crack, blow

holes reduce the strength
FRACTURE MECHANICS
 Different Types of Fracture
Based on the Type of Material
 Ductile Fracture
 Brittle Fracture
 Different stages in Ductile fracture
(a ) Early stage of necking
(b) Small voids begin to form within the necked
region
© Voids joining together, producing an internal
crack
(d)Rest of cross section begins to fail at the
periphery by shearing
(e) Final fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top
fracture surface) and cone (bottom surface)
fracture
 Difference between ductile and brittle fracture
Ductile Fracture Brittle Fracture

Accompanied with large plastic Has the movement of crack with neglible
deformation plastic deformation

Slow rate of crack propagation Rapid rate of crack propagation

Surface obtained at fracture is Surface obtained at fracture is

fibrous and with dull colour accompanied with hills and valleys and
shining
Example of material that undergo
ductile fracture are mild steel, Example of material that undergo
brass, gold and lead perfectly brittle fracture are glass, cast
iron and ceramics
 Impact Fracture

ductile fracture brittle fracture

78
 Considering Temperature Effects
• Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)

Impact Energy

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials ( s y > E/150)

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister 7e.
Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
 Ductile-to-Brittle Transition (Embrittlement)
1. Hydrogen Embrittlement: Hydrogen produces severe embrittlement in
many metals. Even very small amount of hydrogen can cause cracking
in steel and titanium. It may be introduced during melting and entrapped
during solidification, or it may be picked up during heat treatment, acid
pickling, electroplating or welding.

2. Temper Embrittlement: Tempering some steels within 450 - 590 °C

results in temper brittlement, which is manifested by increase in impact
transition temperature. It is due to segregation of certain elements to
grain boundaries, giving local hardening to fracture.

3. Blue Brittleness: Low-carbon steels exhibit two types of aging which

causes an increase in transition temperature: quench aging & strain
aging. Strain aging is the slow increase in hardness in steels finished
by cold work (mainly cold rolling). Blue brittleness is attributed to strain
aging caused by heating cold worked steel to around 205 °C.
80
 Ductile-Brittle Transition
• When ductile metals are subjected to impact loads
at comparatively low temperatures, a transition
occurs from ductile fracture to brittle fracture.
• It depends on
• Alloying elements
• Microstructure of materials
• Grain size (smaller grain size results in lower
transition temperature)
• Size and shape of the specimen
• Stress distribution (biaxial, triaxial)
 Fracture- Based on the temperature and type of stresses

• FATIGUE FRACTURE
It is the failure of material when subjected to
repeated cyclic stresses
• CREEP FRACTURE
Creep may be defined as the slow and progressive
deformation of a material with time under a
constant stress at a temperature approximately
above 0.4 Tm
Tm- Melting temperature of the material
 FATIGUE
• Under fluctuating / cyclic stresses, failure can
occur at loads considerably lower than tensile or
yield strengths of material under a static load:
Fatigue
• Estimated to causes 90% of all failures of metallic
structures (bridges, aircraft, machine
components, etc.)
• Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little
plastic deformation) - even in normally ductile
materials. Thus sudden and catastrophic!
• Applied stresses causing fatigue may be axial
(tension or compression), flexural (bending) or
torsional (twisting).
• Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct stages:
crack initiation in the areas of stress
 σ

σmea Δσ Fluctuatin
g stress
n
σmax

σmin

σmax Δσ Reverse
σmean=
0 σmin time d stress
Cyclic stresses are characterized by maximum, minimum and mean
stress, the range of stress, and the stress ratio
 max   min  min
 mean  R
  max   min 2  max
 Fracture caused by fatique is brittle (even in
ductile materials)

 Fatigue Tests are carried out to determine:

1. The stresses that can be applied over a
specified number of repetitions
2. The life under a specified stress level

 For ferrous metals and alloys the strength of

the material under repeated stress is called
as “Endurance Limit” or “Fatigue Limit”
 For most other materials fatique limit does
not exist. In those the strength under
repeated loading is given by “Fatigue
Strength”
 Endurance Limit: Maximum stressthat
can be applied repeatedly an infinite
number of times (for most steels 35%-
60%)

 Fatigue Strength: Maximum stress that

can be applied repeatedly over a
specified number of load repetitions (for
example 106)

 The relationship b/w stress and number

k: constant n: constant (8-
k
of  repetitions
load
a
N 15) is given by:
Factors Affecting the Fatigue Behavior/Life
 Quality
 Environmental Conditions (temperature,
corrosion)
 Range of Stress
 Frequency of Loading
 Surface Effects (Most cracks start from
the surface. Better design coulb be
utilized to reduce this)
Avoid Round
sharp corners
corners (better
(poor)
 CREEP
 It can be defined as the slow &
progressive (increasingly continuing)
deformation of a material with time
under a constant stress.
 It is both a time & temperature
dependent phenemenon.
 The method of carrying out creep tests is
to subject the specimen to a constant
stress while maintaining the temperature
constant and measuring the extent of
deformation.
 CREEP

• can also be defined as

‘ the slow and progressive
deformation of a material with
time at constant stress.’
• CREEP CURVE
• Factors affecting Creep:

• Load :
• Temperature:
• Composition:
• Grain size
• Heat treatment
• Effect of high temperature:

At Higher temp. the creep rate

increases.
• ‘ structural changes’ takes place.
• Ex :- creep strength for a steam
turbine blade may be that stress
which will produce just 0.2% creep
for 10,000 hours of working at
800oC.
• Load : Creep rate increases as load
increases.
• Temperature: Creep rate increases
as T increases.
• Composition: Pure metals are softer
than alloys , the different phases
present stops the dislocation glide .
Hence creep is more in pure metals.
• Grain size: “Smaller the grain, stronger
the material.”
• But above Equicohessive temp. this
effect will be reversed one.
• Equicohessive temp. (Kelvin) Te > Tm/2
Heat Treatment: This changes the
structure,Obviously the materials
property changes, creep resistance also
changes.