• Name of the Staff : AYYAPPA SRINIVASAN M

G
• Programme : B.E
• Course Code &Title : IC8451/ CONTROL SYSTEM

• Year / Semester : II/IV

 UNIT – 5
CONTROL SYSTEM ANALYSIS USING
STATE VARIABLEREPRESENTATION

2
 Need Of State Variable Analysis
• Modern control theory is contrasted with
conventional control theory. It is applicable to MIMO
(Multiple Input Multiple Output) systems, which may
be linear or non linear, time variant or time varying
systems.

• Conventional control theory, is applicable only to

linear time invariant SISO (Single Input Single Output)
systems.

3
 State Variable Representation
 In state variable analysis, with the Input Signals Output
help of state variables, the Signals
u1(t)
condition of the system can be u2(t) System
defined at any instant of time.
 A simple practical example of a
x(0) Initial
state variable is the state of an on- conditions
off light switch. u(t) y(t)
 The switch can be in either the on System
or the off position, and thus the Input Output
state of the switch can assume one
of two possible values.
 Thus, if we know the present state
(position) of the switch at t0 and if
an input is applied, we are able to
determine the future value of the
4
state of the element.
 State
The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of
variables such that the knowledge of these variables a t
= t0, with the knowledge of input for t≥t0 completely
determines the behavior of the system for any time
t≥t0.

In other words, the state of a system represents the

minimum amount of information that we need to know
about at system at t0 such that its future behavior can
be determined without reference to the input before t0.
5
 State Variables
• The state variables of a dynamic system are the
variable which make up the smallest set of
variables that determine the state of the dynamic
system.

• If at least n variables are needed to completely

describe the behavior of a dynamic system, then
such n variables are a set of state variables.
6
 State Vector
• If n state variables are needed to completely
describe the behavior of a given system, then
these n state variables can be considered the n
components of a vector x. Such a vector is aclled
a state vector.

• A state vector is a vector that determines

uniquely, the system state x (t) for any time t ≤t0
once the state at t = t0 is given and the input u (t)
fo t≥t0 is specified.
7
 State Space
• The n dimensional space where x1 axis, x2
axis, …. , xn axis, where x1, x2, …. , xn are state
cariables, is called the state space.

• Any state can be represented by a point in the

state space.

8
 State Space Representation
• A continuous linear time invariant state space
model takes the following form:

A = System Matrix B = Input Matrix

C = Output Matrix D = Feedforward Matrix

9
For an RLC Circuit

10
 For an RLC Circuit
• The state variables are
i(t) and q (t).
di 1
L  Ri  idt vt 
dt C

But , i t  dq dt
d 2q dq 1
L 2  R  q vt 
dt dt C

dq
And , i
dt

di 1 R 1
  q  i  vt 
dt LC L L

11
 For an RLC Circuit
• The state variables are
i(t) and q (t).

1
vL t   qt  Rit  vt 
C

12
 For an RLC Circuit
• The state variables are • In Matrix Form:
i(t) and q (t).
x  Ax  Bu
 dq dt   q
x   x  
 di dt  i

 0 1   0 
A  B  
  1 / LC  R / L  1 L 

y Cx  Du
y vL t 
C  1 C  R D 1
u vt  13
 For an RLC Circuit
• The state variables are • In Matrix Equation
i(t) and q (t). Form:

x  Ax  Bu
y Cx  Du

• State Space Model:

 dq dt   0 1   q  0 
 di dt    1 / LC       v(t )
 R / L   i  1 L 
  

 q
vL t   1 C  R    1v(t )
i
14
For a Mechanical Circuit

y2 y1
K

M2 M1 f (t )

B3 B1

B2

15
For a Mechanical Circuit

y2 y1
K
M2 M1 f (t )

B3 B1
B2

M 1 y1  B1 y 1  B2 ( y 1  y 2 )  K ( y1  y 2 )  f (t )
M 2 y 2  B3 y 2  B2 ( y 2  y 1 )  K ( y 2  y1 ) 0

16
 For a Mechanical Circuit

y2 y1
K
M2 M1 f (t )

B3 B1
B2

 
 
x1  y1  y 2  x 1   0 1 1   x1   0 
 x  K ( B  B2 ) B2   x    1  f (t )
let x 2  y 1  2    1
 M1 M1 M1   2   M1 
 x 3   K  
x3  y 2 B2 ( B2  B3 )   x3   0 
  
 M 2 M2 M 2 
17
The state variables describe the future response of a system, given the
present state, the excitation inputs, and the equations describing the
dynamics.

A simple example of a state variable is the state of an on-off light switch.

The switch can be in either the on or the off position, and thus the state of
the switch can assume one of two possible values. Thus, if we know the
present state (position) of the switch at t0 and if an input is applied, we are
able to determine the future value of the state of the element.

The concept of a set of state variables that

represent a dynamic system can be illustrated in
terms of the spring-mass-damper system shown
k c
in Figure 2. The number of state variables chosen
to represent this system should be as small as
possible in order to avoid redundant state
m
variables. A set of state variables sufficient to
describe this system includes the position and the
velocity of the mass.
y(t) u(t)
18
Figure 2. 1-dof system.
Therefore we will define a set of variables as [x1 x2], where

x 1 ( t ) y( t ) Kinetic and Potential energies, virtual work.

dy( t ) 1 1
x 2 (t)  E1  m y , E 2  k y 2 , W u ( t ) y  c y y
2

dt 2 2

Lagrangian of the system is expressed as L E1  E 2 Generalized Force

Lagrange’s equation d  E1  E 2  E1  E 2 

   Q y
dt  y  y
d2y dy
m 2 c  kx u ( t )
dt dt
dx 2
m  c x 2  k x1 u ( t ) Equation of motion in terms of state variables.
dt

We can write the equations that describe the behavior of the spring-mass-
damper system as the set of two first-order differential equations.
19
 dx1 This set of difefrential equations
x 2 describes the behavior of the state of
dt
the system in terms of the rate of
dx 2 c k 1 change of each state variables.
 x2  x1  u ( t )
dt m m m

As another example of the state variable characterization of a system, consider the

RLC circuit shown in Figure 3.

The state of this system can

iL be described in terms of a set
ic of variables [x1 x2], where x1 is
L
u(t) R Vo the capacitor voltage vc(t) and
Vc x2 is equal to the inductor
C
Current current iL(t). This choice of
source state variables is intuitively
Figure 3
satisfactory because the
stored energy of the network
1
2
2
E1  L i L , E 2 
1
2C

c
i dt  
1
2

2
C v 2
c
can be described in terms of
these variables.
20
Therefore x1(t0) and x2(t0) represent the total initial energy of the network and
thus the state of the system at t=t0.

Utilizing Kirchhoff’s current low at the junction, we obtain a first order differential
equation by describing the rate of change of capacitor voltage

dv c
i c C u ( t )  i L
dt
Kirchhoff’s voltage low for the right-hand loop provides the equation describing
the rate of change of inducator current as

di L
L  R i L  v c
dt
The output of the system is represented by the linear algebraic equation

v 0 R i L ( t )

21
We can write the equations as a set of two first order differential equations in
terms of the state variables x1 [vC(t)] and x2 [iL(t)] as follows:

dv c dx1 1 1
C u ( t )  i L  x 2  u ( t )
dt dt C C
di L dx 2 1 R
L  R i L  v c  x1  x2
dt dt L L

The output signal is then y1 ( t ) v 0 ( t ) R x 2

Utilizing the first-order differential equations and the initial conditions of the
network represented by [x1(t0) x2(t0)], we can determine the system’s future
and its output.

The state variables that describe a system are not a unique set, and several
alternative sets of state variables can be chosen. For the RLC circuit, we
might choose the set of state variables as the two voltages, vC(t) and vL(t).
22
In an actual system, there are several choices of a set of state variables that
specify the energy stored in a system and therefore adequately describe the
dynamics of the system.

The state variables of a system characterize the dynamic behavior of a

system. The engineer’s interest is primarily in physical, where the variables
are voltages, currents, velocities, positions, pressures, temperatures, and
similar physical variables.

23
Equivalence between transfer function &
state variable representation

24
Thus, this set of simultaneous differential equations can be written in matrix
form as follows:

 x1   a 11 a 12  a 1n   x1 
       b11  b1m   u1 
d  x 2   a 21 a 22  a 2n   x 2  
        
 
dt           
       b n1  b nm   u m 
 x n   a n1 a n2  a nn   x n 

n: number of state variables, m: number of inputs.

The column matrix consisting of the state variables is called the state vector
and is written as
 x1 
x 
x  2 
 
 
 xn  25
The vector of input signals is defined as u. Then the system can be
represented by the compact notation of the state differential equation as

x A x  B u
This differential equation is also commonly called the state equation. The
matrix A is an nxn square matrix, and B is an nxm matrix. The state differential
equation relates the rate of change of the state of the system to the state of the
system and the input signals. In general, the outputs of a linear system can be
related to the state variables and the input signals by the output equation

y C x  D u
Where y is the set of output signals expressed in column vector form. The
state-space representation (or state-variable representation) is comprised of
the state variable differential equation and the output equation.

26
We can write the state variable differential equation for the RLC circuit as

 1
0    1
x  C x    u(t)
1 R C
 0
    
L L
and the output as

y 0 R  x
The solution of the state differential equation can be obtained in a manner
similar to the approach we utilize for solving a first order differential equation.
Consider the first-order differential equation

x ax  bu
Where x(t) and u(t) are scalar functions of time. We expect an exponential
solution of the form eat. Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, we have 27
 s X (s)  x 0 a X (s)  b U (s)
therefore,

x (0) b
X (s)   U (s)
s a s a

The inverse Laplace transform of X(s) results in the solution

t
x ( t ) e at x (0)  e a ( t   ) b u () d
0
We expect the solution of the state differential equation to be similar to x(t)
and to be of differential form. The matrix exponential function is defined
as

A2t 2 Ak t k
e At I  At    
2! k!
28
which converges for all finite t and any A. Then the solution of the state
differential equation is found to be

t
x ( t ) e At x (0)  e A ( t   ) B u () d
0

X (s) sI  A  x (0)  sI  A  B U (s)

1 1

where we note that [sI-A]-1=ϕ(s), which is the Laplace transform of ϕ(t)=eAt.

The matrix exponential function ϕ(t) describes the unforced response of the
system and is called the fundamental or state transition matrix.

t
x ( t ) ( t ) x (0)  ( t  ) B u () d
0

29
THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM THE STATE EQUATION

The transfer function of a single input-single output (SISO) system can be

obtained from the state variable equations.

x A x  B u
y C x
where y is the single output and u is the single input. The Laplace transform
of the equations

sX(s) AX(s)  B U(s)

Y(s) CX (s)

where B is an nx1 matrix, since u is a single input. We do not include initial

conditions, since we seek the transfer function. Reordering the equation

30
 [sI  A] X(s) B U(s)
X(s) sI  A  BU(s) (s)BU(s)
1

Y(s) C(s)BU(s)
Therefore, the transfer function G(s)=Y(s)/U(s) is

G (s) C(s)B

31
32
Conversion of State Variable Model to
Transfer Function

33
34
  R 1
1 s  L  
(s) sI  A   C
1
 
 (s)  1 s 
 L 
R 1
 (s) s 2  s 
L LC

Then the transfer function is

 R 
 s 
L  1   1
 
G (s) 0 R   (s) C (s)   C
 0
 1 s   
 L (s)  (s) 
R / LC R / LC
G (s)  
 (s) 2 R 1
s  s
L LC
35
Ex. Find the transfer the state-space
from representation
10
 0 1 0 
X   0   
1 x   0 u
0  1  2  3  0 

y 0 0x
Solution: 1
s 0 0  0 1 0  s  1 0
(sI  A)  0 s 0  0 0 1  0 s  1
  
0 0 s   1 
 2  3 1 2 s  3

s 2  3s  2 s3 1
 

1 s 2  3s s
adj(sI  A)   s  2s  1 s2 
(sI  A) 1   3 2

det(sI  A) s  3s  2s  1

Y(s) 10(s 2  3s  2)
 3
U(s) s  3s 2  2s  1
1
9
37
Transfer Function to State Space
Representation

38
Find the state-space representation in phase-variable form for the
transfer function.

39
• Step 1. Find the associated differential equation

• Cross-multiplying yields

• The corresponding differential equation is found by taking the

inverse Laplace Transform, assuming zero initial conditions:

40
• Step 2. Select the state variables. Choosing the state variables
as successive derivatives, we get:

• Using this notation, we can rewrite equation (1) as:

41
• Step 3. Differentiating both sides of the last equations, we
must find _x1 and _x2, then we use Eq. (2) to find x3.
Proceeding in this way we obtain the state equations. Since the
output is c=x1, the combined state and output equations are

42
• Step 4. Expressing the last equations in vector-matrix form,
we get the state-space representation of the system as

43
44
Solution of State Equations:

20
2
1
22
State Transition Matrix

23
Laplace Transform Method (STM Computation)

24
25
Total Response

26
 Stability of Linear Control System
Analysıs of state varıable models usıng Matlab:
Given a transfer function, we can obtain an equivalent state-space representation
and vice versa. The function tf can be used to convert a state-space
representation to a transfer function representation; the function ss can be used
to convert a transfer function representation to a state-space representation. The
functions are shown in Figure 4, where sys_tf represents a transfer function model
and sys_ss is a state space representation.

x Ax  Bu Y(s) G (s) U(s)

x Ax  Bu y Cx  Du
State-space object
y Cx  Du

sys_ss=ss(sys_tf)

sys_tf=tf(sys_ss)

sys=ss(A,B,C,D) x Ax  Bu
Y(s) G (s) U(s)
Cx  Du
Linear system modely conversion
The ss function
52
For instance, consider the third-order system

Y(s) 2 s2  8 s  6
G (s)  
R (s) s 3  8 s 2  16 s  6

We can obtain a state-space representation using the ss function. The state-

space representation of the system given by G(s) is
Matlab code Transfer function:
2 s^2 + 8 s + 6
----------------------
s^3 + 8 s^2 + 16 s + 6
num=[2 8 6];den=[1 8 16 6];
Answer a=
sys_tf=tf(num,den) x1 x2 x3
x1 -8 -4 -1.5
sys_ss=ss(sys_tf) x2
x3
4 0 0
0 1 0

b=

  8  4  1 . 5
u1
 2 x1 2

A  4 0  , B  0

x2 0
0 x3 0

c=
 0 1 0   0 x1 x2 x3
y1 1 1 0.75

d=
u1

C 1 1 0.75 and D 0 y1 0

53
Continuous-time model.
   8  4  1 . 5  2
A  4 0 0  , B  0
 0 1 0   0

C 1 1 0.75 and D 0

1
R(s) x1 x2
x3 Y(s)
2 1/s 4 1/s 1 1/s 0.75

-8

-4

-1.5

Block diagram with x1 defined as the leftmost state variable. 54

 t
x ( t ) e At x (0)  e A ( t   ) B u () d
0
t
x ( t ) ( t ) x (0)  ( t  ) B u () d
0

We can use the function expm to compute the transition matrix for a given
time. The expm(A) function computes the matrix exponential. By contrast the
exp(A) function calculates eaij for each of the elements aijϵA.

For the RLC network, the state-space representation is given as:

 0  2  2
A   , B   , C 1 0 and D 0
 1  3  0

The initial conditions are x1(0)=x2(0)=1 and the input u(t)=0. At t=0.2, the state
transition matrix is calculated as Phi =

>>A=[0 -2;1 -3], dt=0.2; Phi=expm(A*dt) 0.9671 -0.2968

0.1484 0.5219 55
The state at t=0.2 is predicted by the state transition method to be

 x1   0.9671  0.2968  x1   0.6703

x     x   0.6703
 2  t 0.2  0.1484 0.5219   2  t 0  
The time response of a system can also be obtained by using lsim
function. The lsim function can accept as input nonzero initial conditions
as well as an input function. Using lsim function, we can calculate the
response for the RLC network as shown below.

u(t) System y(t)

Arbitrary Input x Ax  Bu Output

y Cx  Du
t t
t=times at which
y(t)=output response at t response is Initial conditions
computed
T: time vector (optional)
X(t)=state response at t
u=input

[y,T,x]=lsim(sys,u,t,x0) 56
 1

Matlab code 0.8 u=0*t

0.6
clc;clear

X1
0.4
A=[0 -2;1 -3];B=[2;0];C=[1 0];D=[0];
0.2
sys=ss(A,B,C,D) %state-space model
0
x0=[1 1]; %initial conditions 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Time (seconds)
0.8 1

t=[0:0.01:1]; 1
u=0*t; %zero input 0.8
[y,T,x]=lsim(sys,u,t,x0); 0.6
subplot(211),plot(T,x(:,1))

X2
0.4

xlabel('Time (seconds)'),ylabel('X_1') 0.2

subplot(212),plot(T,x(:,2)) 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
xlabel('Time (seconds)'),ylabel('X_2') Time (seconds)

3 2.5

2 u=3*t 2
X1

X1 u=3*exp(-2*t)
1 1.5

0 1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time (seconds) Time (seconds)

1 1

0.9
0.8
0.8
X2

X2

0.6
0.7

0.4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 57
Time (seconds) Time (seconds)
 Example: Dorf and Bishop, Modern Control Systems, p173.
Consider the head mount of a disk reader shown in
the figure. We will attempt to derive a model for the
system shown in Figure 5a. Here we identify the
motor mass M1 and the head mount mass as M2.
The flexure spring is represented by the spring
constant k. The force u(t) to drive the mass M 1 is
generated by the DC motor. If the spring is
absolutely rigid (nonspringy), then we obtain the
simplifed model shown in Figure 5b. Typical
parameters for the two-mass system are given in
Table 1.
Motor q(t) Head y(t) y(t)
u(t)
mass mass
Head u(t)
Force position M=M1+M2
M1 M2

b1 b2 b1
Figure 5a Figure 5b
Table 1. Typical parameters of the two-mass model
Motor mass M1= 0.02 kg Friction at mass 1 b1=410x10-3 kgs/m Motor constant Km=0.1025 Nm/A
Flexure spring 10<=k<=inf Field resistance R=1 Ω Friction at mass 2 b2=4.1x10-3 kgm/s
Head mounting M2=0.0005 kg Field inductance L=1 mH Head position y(t)=x2(t)

58
 Motor coil To develop a state variable model, we
V(s) U(s) Two-
choose the state variables as x1=q and
Km mass
system
Force x2=y. Then we have
Ls  R
2
 q 
dq dq  y 
M1 2  b1  k q  y  u ( t )
dt dt dq dy x  
x3  and x 4   q x 3 
d2y dy dt dt  
M 2 2  b2  k y  q  0  y  x 4
dt dt
In matrix form, x Ax  Bu y 0 0 0 1 x
 0 0 1 0   0 
 0   0 
0 0 1 B  
A  
 1 / M1 
  k / M1 k / M1  b1 / M1 0 
   
 k / M2  b2 / M 2   0 
 k / M2 0

Note that the output is dy/dt=x4. Also, for L=0 or negligible inductance, then
59
u(t)=K v(t). For the typical parameters and k=10, we have
  0  0 0 1 0 
 0  0 0 0 1 
B   , A 
 50   500 500  20.5 0 
   
 0  20000  20000 0  8 .2 

clc;clear
Velocity of Mass 2 (Head)
k=10; 3

M1=0.02;M2=0.0005; k=10 N/m

2.5
b1=410e-3;b2=4.1e-3;
t=0:0.001:1.5; 2
A=[0 0 1 0;0 0 0 1;-k/M1 k/M1 -
ydot (m/s)

b1/M1 0;k/M2 -k/M2 0 -b2/M2]; 1.5

B=[0;0;1/M1;0];C=[0 0 0 1];D=[0];
sys=ss(A,B,C,D) 1

y=step(sys,t);
0.5
plot(t,y);grid
xlabel('Time 0
0 0.5 1 1.5
(seconds)'),ylabel('ydot (m/s)') Time (seconds)

60
 2.5
k=100 N/m 2.5
k=1000 N/m

2 2

1.5 1.5
ydot (m/s)

ydot (m/s)
1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (seconds) Time (seconds)
2.5

k=100000 N/m
1.5
ydot (m/s)

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5
61
Time (seconds)
62
CONTROLLABILITY:

Full-state feedback design commonly relies on pole-placement

techniques. It is important to note that a system must be completely
controllable and completely observable to allow the flexibility to place all
the closed-loop system poles arbitrarily. The concepts of controllability and
observability were introduced by Kalman in the 1960s.

A system is completely controllable if there exists an unconstrained

control u(t) that can transfer any initial state x(t 0) to any other desired
location x(t) in a finite time, t0≤t≤T.

63
For the system

x Ax  Bu

we can determine whether the system is controllable by examining the

algebraic condition


rank B AB A 2 B  A n  1B n 
The matrix A is an nxn matrix an B is an nx1 matrix. For multi input systems,
B can be nxm, where m is the number of inputs.

For a single-input, single-output system, the controllability matrix P c is

described in terms of A and B as


Pc  B AB A 2 B  A n  1B 
which is nxn matrix. Therefore, if the determinant of Pc is nonzero, the system
is controllable. 64
Example:
Consider the system

 0 1 0   0
x  0 0 1  x   0 u , y 1 0 0 x  0 u
  a 0  a1  a 2   1

 0 1 0   0  0   1 
A  0 0 1  , B  0 , AB  1  , A 2 B   a 2 
  a 0  a1  a 2   1   a 2   a 22  a 1 

0 0 1 

Pc  B AB A 2 B  0 1   a 2 
 1  a 2 a 22  a1 
The determinant of Pc =1 and ≠0 , hence this system is controllable. 65
Example.

Consider a system represented by the two state equations

x 1  2 x1  u , x 2  3 x 2  d x1
The output of the system is y=x2. Determine the condition of controllability.

 2 0   1
x   x    u , y 0 1 x  0 u
 d  3  0
 1   2 0   1    2
B   and AB      
 0  d  3  0  d 
 1  2
Pc   The determinant of pc is equal to d, which is
 0 d  nonzero only when d is nonzero.

66
OBSERVABILITY:

All the poles of the closed-loop system can be placed arbitrarily in the complex
plane if and only if the system is observable and controllable. Observability
refers to the ability to estimate a state variable.

A system is completely observable if and only if there exists a finite time T

such that the initial state x(0) can be determined from the
observation history y(t) given the control u(t).

Consider the single-input, single-output system

x Ax  Bu and y Cx

where C is a 1xn row vector, and x is an nx1 column vector. This system is
completely observable when the determinant of the observability matrix P0
67
is nonzero.
The observability matrix, which is an nxn matrix, is written as

 C 
 CA 
PO  
  
 n 1 
CA 

Example:
Consider the previously given system

 0 1 0 
A  0 0 1  , C 1 0 0
  a 0  a1  a 2 
68
 CA 0 1 0 , CA 2 0 0 1

Thus, we obtain

 1 0 0
PO  0 1 0
 0 0 1

The det P0=1, and the system is completely observable. Note that
determination of observability does not utility the B and C matrices.

Example: Consider the system given by

 2 0 1
x   x  u and y 1 1 x
  1 1   1
69
We can check the system controllability and observability using the P c and P0
matrices.

From the system definition, we obtain

1  2
B   and AB  
  1   2

Therefore, the controllability matrix is determined to be

1 2
Pc B AB  
  1  2 
det Pc=0 and rank(Pc)=1. Thus, the system is not controllable.

70
From the system definition, we obtain

C 1 1 and CA 1 1

Therefore, the observability matrix is determined to be

 C  1 1
Po    
 CA   1 1
det PO=0 and rank(PO)=1. Thus, the system is not observable.

If we look again at the state model, we note that y x 1  x 2

However,
x 1  x 2 2 x1  x 2  x1  u  u x1  x 2

71
72
DIGITAL CONTROL DESIGN USING STATE VARIABLE FEEDBACK SYSTEMS

• The time-domain method, expressed in terms of state variables, can also be

utilized to design a suitable compensation scheme for a control system.
• Typically, we are interested in controlling the system with a control signal, u(t),
which is a function of several measurable state variables.
• Then we develop a state variable controller that operates on the information
available in measured form.
• State variable design is typically comprised of three steps.
• In the first step, we assume that all the state variables are measurable and
utilize them in a full-state feedback control law.
• Full-state feedback is not usually practical because it is not possible (in general)
to measure all the states

73
• In practice, only certain states (or linear combinations thereof) are
measured and provided as system outputs.
• The second step in state variable design is to construct an observer to
estimate the states that are not directly sensed and available as outputs.
Observers can either be full-state observers or reduced-order observers.
• Reduced-order observers account for the fact that certain states are already
available as system outputs; hence they do not need to be estimated. The
final step in the design process is to appropriately connect the observer to
the full-state feedback control low.
• It is common to refer to the state-variable controller as a compensator.
Additionally, it is possible to consider reference inputs to the state variable
compensator to complete the design.

74
 State Variable Analysis using digital
control system
Sampled Data Systems:

• A system with both CT and DT components is often referred

to as a sampled data system
• In practice, most control systems are sampled data systems
•
An analog-to-digital (A/D) converter samples a physical
variable and translates it into a digital number
– We usually assume this occurs at a fixed sampling period,
T
• In most sampled data systems, a digital controller replaces a
continuous controller as shown...
•The D/A converter converts the controller output to an
analog signal which is held until the next period of
duration T. This is known as zero-order hold (ZOH).
ZOH incurs an average delay of T/2.
•This delay is one reason we generally wish to increase the
frequency of the digital controller’s operation.
The Transfer Function of a DT System
• We can find the transfer function of a DT system by using the z-
transform. Consider again the general second-order difference equation:

• Now apply

• Similar to LT we seldom use the raw definition of the z- transform

but make use of tables instead...
 Discrete-Time State Space
• The discrete-time (DT) state space representation
is of
the following form:

• This is quite similar to the continuous-time (CT)

representation except that we have a shift in time as
opposed to a derivative
• In CT we needed to handle higher-order derivatives
which was achieved by defining a stack of state
variables
• In DT we can apply the same idea to handle larger
time shifts.
 • Consider the following common form of difference
equation:
y(k + n)+ a1 y(k + n 1) + a2 y(k + n 2) + .. . + an 1 y(k + 1)+ an y(k) = bu(k)

• We can assign the “base” variable y(k) as our first

state variable and create further state variables to
represent all subsequent time shifts:
Solution of the DT State Space Equations
• Consider just the DT state space difference equation:

• We will assume that x(0) and the input u(k) are

known. We can solve for k = 0, 1, 2, ...
• In the CT solution to the state-space equation we found
something similar, only more exotic because it involved the
matrix exponential. Our approach then was to try using
Laplace to obtain an easier-to-compute solution. Here we do
the same, except we use the z-transform instead.
• First we restate the state-space difference equation:

• We rewrite this as individual row equations:

• Now take the z-transform...

 z-transform

Express as a vector-matrix equation and solve for X(z):

We can equate the time-domain solution (above left) and the z-transform solution
(above right) and denote Φ(k) = Ak. Note that Φ(k) is the state transition matrix for
our discrete-time solution, but it is not the matrix exponential. Now we have an
alternative way of computing Φ(k):

Notice how closely this followed the derivation of the state-space solution in CT