ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
 The endocrine system
• Two body systems are responsible for sending and receiving
sensory information and coordinating body responses. These
are the nervous system and the endocrine system. Together,
they are sometimes referred to as the neuro-endocrine
system.

• The endocrine system regulates body activities by releasing

hormones (chemical messengers) into the bloodstream, where
they are carried throughout the entire body.

• Hormonal responses may be almost instantaneous (Sudden),

or may occur days later. There is a wide variety of hormonal
effects.
 Hormone functions
• Regulate the chemical composition and volume of the
internal environment (extracellular fluid).
• Help regulate metabolism and energy balance.
• Help regulate contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle
fibers and secretion by glands.
• Help maintain homeostasis, despite disruptions, such as
infection, trauma, emotional stress, dehydration, starvation,
hemorrhage, and temperature extremes.
• Regulate certain activities of the immune system.
• Play a role in the smooth, sequential integration of growth
and development.
• Contribute to the basic processes of reproduction, including
gamete production, fertilization, nourishment of the embryo
and fetus, delivery, and nourishment of the newborn.
 Exocrine & Endocrine
Glands
• The body contains two kinds of glands:
– Exocrine glands secrete their products into body ducts,
which carry the products into body cavities, the lumen of
an organ, or the outer surface of the body.
• Sudoriferous glands, sebaceous glands, mucous glands,
and digestive glands.

– Endocrine glands secrete their products (hormones) into

the extracellular space around the secretory cells. The
secretions diffuse into capillaries and are carried
throughout the body by the circulatory system.
• The endocrine system is composed of the body"s endocrine
glands. These include:
– the pituitary,
– thyroid,
– parathyroid,
– adrenal
– pineal glands
– pancreatic islets.
• There are also many organs that have cells which secrete
hormones, but are not exclusively endocrine organs. These
include:
– the hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes,
kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, and
placenta.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Hormones

• Hormones are a chemical substances that are carried

by a cell tissue and initiate specific action.
 Hormones
• Hormones can have very powerful effects, even when
present in very low concentrations.
• There are approximately 50 different hormones
produced in the human body.
• The specific cells which are affected by a hormone are
called target cells.
• Hormones influence their target cells by binding to
proteins or glycoproteins in the cell membrane called
receptors.
 The pituitary gland &
Hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus- the region of the forebrain below the
thalamus that secretes substances that influence pituitary and
other gland function. Involved in the control of body
temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and other homeostatic
processes.
• Composed of multiple nuclei (e.g., lateral nucleus, preoptic
nucleus)
• The hypothalamus is the major integrating link between the
nervous and endocrine systems.
• The pituitary gland or hypophysis is attached to the
hypothalamus at the base of the brain.
• Although the pituitary gland is sometimes called the
“master” endocrine gland.
• Together, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland regulate
virtually all aspects of growth, development, metabolism,
and homeostasis.
• The pituitary gland can be divided into the posterior
pituitary and anterior pituitary.
• It is the size of a pea, weighs about 500 mg and consists of
two main parts that originate from different types of cells.
• The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) is an upgrowth of
glandular epithelium from the pharynx and the posterior
pituitary (neurohypophysis) a downgrowth of nervous tissue
from the brain.

• There is a network of nerve fibres between the hypothalamus

and the posterior pituitary.
 Blood supply

• Arterial blood. This is from branches of the internal carotid

artery. The anterior lobe is supplied indirectlyby blood that
has already passed through a capillary bed in the
hypothalamus but the posterior lobe is supplied directly.
 The influence of the hypothalamus on
the pituitary gland

• The hypothalamus controls release of

hormones from both the anterior and posterior
pituitary but in different ways
• Hormones of the pituitary gland:
 Anterior pituitary = GH
TSH
ACTH
PRL
LH
FSH

 Posterior pituitary = Vassopressin or ADH

oxytocin
 The posterior pituitary
• The posterior pituitary works as a unit with the
hypothalamus.
• Although the posterior pituitary does not
synthesize its own hormones, it does store and
release oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) produced in the hypothalamus.
– OT controls uterine contractions
during delivery and milk ejection during
breastfeeeding.
– ADH causes retention of
body water, controlling the body‟s
water-balancing mechanism
 The anterior pituitary
• The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that
control a wide range of bodily activities.
• The hypothalamus regulates the anterior pituitary by
producing releasing hormones that stimulate release of
anterior pituitary gland hormones and inhibiting
hormones that suppress release of anterior pituitary gland
hormones.
• The anterior pituitary has five princple typesof
cells which secrete seven major hormones
(somatotrophs, lactotrophs, corticotrophs, thyrotrophs,
gonadotrophs).
 Anterior pituitary hormones

• GH : which stimulates generalbody growth

and regulates certain aspects of metabolism.

• thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which

controls
secretions and other activities of the thyroid gland.

• follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing

hormone (LH). Together FSH and LH stimulate the secretion
of estrogen and progesterone and the maturation of oocytes in
the ovaries and the secretion of testosterone and sperm
production in the testes.
• prolactin (PRL), which initiates milk production in
the mammary glands.

• adrenocorticotropic (ACTH) and

hormone
melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH). ACTH stimulates
the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids. MSH affects
skin pigmentation.
 GH: growth hormone:
• This is the most abundant hormone synthesised by the
anterior pituitary.

• It stimulates growth and division of most body cells but

especially those in the bones and skeletal muscles.

• Body growth in response to the secretion of GH is evident

during childhood and adolescence, and thereafter secretion
of GH maintains the mass of bones and skeletal muscles.
• It also regulates aspects of metabolism in many organs,
e.g. liver, intestines and pancreas.

• Its release is stimulated by growth hormone releasing

hormone (GHRH) and suppressed by growth hormone release
inhibiting hormone (GHRIH), also known as somatostatin,
both of which are secreted by the hypothalamus.

• Secretion of GH is greater at night during sleep and is also

stimulated by hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar), exercise and
anxiety. Secretion peaks in adolescence and then declines with
age.
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
• The release of this hormone is stimulated by thyrotrophin
releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus.

• It stimulates growth and activity of the thyroid gland, which

secretes the hormones thyroxine (T4) and tri- iodothyronine
(T3).

• Release is lowest in the early evening and highest during the

night.
 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH,
corticotrophin)
• Corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) from the
hypothalamus promotes the synthesis and release of ACTH by
the anterior pituitary.

• This increases the concentration of cholesterol and steroids

within the adrenal cortex

• ACTH levels are highest at about 8 a.m. and fall to their

lowest about midnight,
 Prolactin
• This hormone is secreted during pregnancy to prepare the
breasts for lactation (milk production) after childbirth.

• The blood level of prolactin is lowered by prolactin

inhibiting hormone (PIH, dopamine) and by an increased
blood level of prolactin.
 Gonadotrophins
• Just before puberty two gonadotrophins (sex hormones) are
secreted in gradually increasing amounts by
the
anterior pituitary in response to luteinising hormone
releasing hormone (LHRH), also known as
gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH).

• Rising levels of these hormones at puberty promotes mature

functioning of the reproductive organs. In both males and
females the hormones responsible are:
• follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
• luteinising hormone (LH).
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• In female : regulates the development of sex organs in female,
development of immature ovarian follicle from the ovary.
• Secretes oestrogen & progesterone during menstrual cycle.
• In male: initiation of spermatogenesis.
• LH:
• In females: ovulation, maintaining of corpus luteum and
secretion of progesterone.
• In males: testosterone secretion.
 The thyroid gland
• The thyroid gland is situated in the neck in front of the larynx
and trachea at the level of the 5th, 6th and 7th cervical and 1st
thoracic vertebrae.

• It is a highly vascular gland that weighs about 25 g and is

surrounded by a fibrous capsule.

• It resembles a butterfly in shape, consisting of two lobes, one

on either side of the thyroid cartilage and upper cartilaginous
rings of the trachea.
• The lobes are joined by a narrow isthmus, lying in front of
the trachea.

• The lobes are roughly cone shaped, about 5 cm long and 3

cm wide.

• The arterial blood supply to the gland is through the superior

and inferior thyroid arteries. The superior thyroid artery is a
branch of the external carotid artery and the inferior thyroid
artery is a branch of the subclavian artery.
• The venous return is by the thyroid veins, which
drain
into the internal jugular veins.

• The gland is composed of largely spherical follicles formed

from cuboidal epithelium.
• These secrete and store colloid, a thick sticky protein material.
Between the follicles are other cells found singly or in small
groups: parafollicular cells, also called C-cells, which secrete
then hormone calcitonin.
 Thyroid hormones
• Thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine
• Iodine is essential for the formation of the
thyroid
hormones, thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3),

• The thyroid gland selectively takes up iodine from

the blood, a process called iodine trapping.

• The release of T3 and T4 into the blood is stimulated by

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior
pituitary.
• Secretion of TSH is stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing
hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus and secretion of TRH
is stimulated by exercise, stress, malnutrition, low plasma
glucose levels and sleep.
• Function of T3 & T4:
• T3 and T4 are essential for normal growth and development,
especially of the skeleton and nervous system.
• Most other organs and systems are also influenced by
thyroid hormones. Physiological effects of T3 and T4 on the
heart, skeletal muscles, skin, digestive and reproductive
systems are more evident when there is underactivity or
overactivity of the thyroid gland and can be profound in
childhood
 Calcitonin
• This hormone is secreted by the parafollicular or C-cells in
the thyroid gland.
• Calcitonin lowers raised blood calcium (Ca2+) levels.
• It does this by acting on:
• bone cells promoting their storage of calcium
• kidney tubules inhibiting the reabsorption of calcium.

• Release of calcitonin is stimulated by increased blood

calcium levels.
 The parathyroid glands
• There are four small parathyroid glands, each weighing
around 50 g, two embedded in the posterior surface of each
lobe of the thyroid gland.

• They are surrounded by fine connective tissue capsules that

contain spherical cells arranged in columns with sinusoids
containing blood in between them.
 Function
• These secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH,
parathormone).
glands Secretion is regulated by blood calcium
levels.

• The main function of PTH is to increase blood calcium levels.

This is achieved by increasing the calcium absorption from
the small intestine and reabsorption from the renal tubules.
 The adrenal glands
• The paired adrenal (suprarenal) glands lie superior to the
kidneys enclosed within the renal fascia.
• They are about 4 cm long and 3 cm thick.
• The adrenal glands are composed of the outer adrenal cortex
and the inner adrenal medulla.
• The complete loss of adrenocorticol hormones leads to death
within a few days to a week, due to dehydration and
electrolyte imballances.
• The glands are composed of two parts which
have different structures and functions.
• The outer part is the cortex and the inner part
the
medulla.
• Hormones of the adrenal gland:
• Adrenal cortex: cortisol
corticosterone
cortisone
aldosterone
androgens
• Adrenal medulla: epinephrine
Nor- epinephrine
 Adrenal cortex
• The adrenal cortex produces three groups of steroid
hormones from cholesterol. They are collectively called
Adrenocorticocoids (corticosteroids).
• The groups are:
• Glucocorticoids (Z.fasciculata)
• Mineralocorticoids (Z.glomeruloza)
• Sex hormones (androgens)
(Z.reticularis).

• The hormones in each group have different characteristic

actions but as they are structurally similar their actions may
overlap.
 Glucocorticoids
• Cortisol (hydrocortisone) the main
is glucocorticoid but small amounts
of
corticosterone and cortisone are also produced.
Commonly these are collectively known
as
„steroids‟; they are essential for life,
regulating metabolism and responses to stress.
• It is stimulated by ACTH from the anterior
pituitary and by stress
• Glucocorticosteroids having a anti-inflammatory
actions.
 Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
• Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoid. It is involved in
maintaining water and electrolyte balance. Through a negative
feedback system it stimulates the reabsorption of sodium
(Na+) by the renal tubules and excretion of potassium (K+) in
the urine.

• Sodium reabsorption is also accompanied by retention of

water and therefore aldosterone is involved in the regulation
of blood volume and blood pressure too.
• Blood potassium levels regulate aldosterone secretion
by the adrenal cortex. When blood potassium levels
rise, more aldosterone is secreted.
• Low blood potassium has the opposite effect.
Angiotensin (see below) also stimulates the release of
aldosterone.
 Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.
• When renal blood flow is reduced or blood sodium levels fall,
the enzyme renin is secreted by kidney cells.

• Renin converts the plasma protein angiotensinogen, produced

by the liver, to angiotensin 1.
• Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), formed in small
quantities in the lungs, proximal kidney tubules and other
tissues, converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2, which
stimulates secretion of aldosterone.

• Angiotensin 2 causes vasoconstriction and increases blood

pressure closing the negative feedback loop
 Sex hormones
• Sex hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are mainly
androgens (male sex hormones) although the amounts
produced are insignificant compared with those secreted by
the testes and ovaries in late puberty and adulthood
 Adrenal medulla

• The medulla is completely surrounded by the adrenal

cortex. It develops from nervous tissue in the embryo and
is part of the sympathetic nervous system.

• When stimulated by extensive sympathetic nerve

supply, the glands release the hormones adrenaline
(epinephrine, 80%) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine,
20%).
 Adrenaline (epinephrine) and
noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

• Noradrenaline is the postganglionic neurotransmitter of the

sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
• Adrenaline and some noradrenalineare released into the blood
from the adrenal medulla during stimulation of the
sympathetic nervous system.
• The action of these hormones prolongs and augments
stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system.
 The pancreas
• Since the pancreas is classified as both and endocrine organ
and an exocrine organ, it will also be discussed again with the
digestive system.

• There are three main types of cells in the pancreatic

islets:
• (alpha) cells, which secrete glucagon
• (beta) cells, which are the most numerous, secrete
insulin
• (delta) cells, which secrete somatostatin (GHRIH,
• The normal blood glucose level is between 3.5 and
7 mmol/litre (63 to 144 mg/100 mL).
• Blood glucose levels are controlled mainly by
the opposing actions of insulin and glucagon:

• glucagon increases blood glucose levels

• insulin reduces blood glucose levels.

 Insulin
• Its main function is to lower raised blood nutrient levels, not
only glucose but also amino acids and fatty acids.

• These effects are described as anabolic, i.e. they promote

storage of nutrients. When nutrients, especially glucose, are in
excess of immediate needs insulin promotes their storage by:
Mechanism by which insulin lowers the blood glucose level:
• acting on cell membranes and stimulating uptake and use of glucose
by muscle and connective tissue cells
• increasing conversion of glucose to glycogen
(glycogenesis), especially in the liver and skeletal muscles
• accelerating uptake of amino acids by cells, and the synthesis of
protein
• promoting synthesis of fatty acids and storage of fat in
adipose tissue (lipogenesis)
• decreasing glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose)
 Glucagon
Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by stimulating:

• conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and

skeletal muscles (glycogenolysis)

• Secretion of glucagon is stimulated by low blood glucose

levels and exercise, and decreased by somatostatin and
insulin.
 Somatostatin (GHRIH)
• This hormone, also produced by the hypothalamus,
inhibits the secretion of both insulin and glucagon in addition
to inhibiting the secretion of GH from the anterior pituitary
 Pineal gland
• The pineal gland is a small body attached to the roof of the
third ventricle and is connected to it by a short stalk
containing nerves, many of which terminate in the
hypothalamus. The pineal gland is about 10 mm long, reddish
brown in colour and surrounded by a capsule. The gland tends
to atrophy after puberty and may become calcified in later
life.
 Function
• The physiological role of pineal gland
the remains unclear.

• The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which is

thought to promote sleepiness and help regulate the
body‟s biological clock. In animals that breed
during specific seasons, melatonin apparently alters
their capacity for reproduction, but it has not been
shown to have a similar effect on humans.
 The ovaries and testes
• The ovaries and testes are paired oval organs referred to as
gonads.
• The ovaries are the female gonads, located in the pelvic
cavity. They secrete estrogens and progesterone, which are
responsible for the development and maintenance of female
sexual characteristics, as well regulating the female
reproductive system [in conjunction with gonadotropic
hormones from the pituitary gland]). The ovaries also produce
relaxin, which soften connective tissues in preparation for
childbirth.
• The testes are the male gonads, located in the scrotum. They
secrete testosterone, which is responsible for male sexual
characteristics, and inhibin, which controls sperm production
by inhibiting follicle stimulating hormone.
 The thymus

• Hormones produced by the thymus gland are thymosin=

These hormones promote the proliferation and maturation of T
cells (white blood cells which destroy microbes and foreign
substances).

• Thymic hormones may also help to retard the

aging
process.
 Local hormones
Histamine
• This is synthesised and stored by mast cells in the
tissues and basophils in blood. It is released as part of
the inflammatory responses, especially when caused
by allergy
Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT)
• This is present in platelets, in the brain and in the intestinal
wall. It causes intestinal secretion and contraction of smooth
muscle and its role in haemostasis (blood clotting)
• It is a neurotransmitter in the CNS and is known to
influence mood.
Prostaglandins (PGs)
These are lipid substances found in most tissues. They act on
neighbouring cells but their actions are short-lived as they are
quickly metabolized. Prostaglandins have potent and wide-
ranging physiological effects in:
• the inflammatory response
• potentiating pain
• fever
• regulating blood pressure
• blood clotting
• uterine contractions during labour.
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