CH 16 DNA is the genetic (heritable) material

LO3.1 Construct explanations that use structures &

mechanisms of DNA & RNA to support that DNA
is the primary source of heritable information

LO3.2 Justify data from historical investigations that

support the claim that DNA is the source of
genetic information

LO3.3 describe representations that illustrate how

genetic information is copied between generations

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 Frederick Griffith
• Transformation = Nonpathogenic bacteria
change to pathogenic type by an inheritable
substance

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 Avery, McCarty & MacLeod

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 Proof DNA is genetic material: Hershey & Chase
EXPERIMENT

1 Mixed radioactively 2 Agitated in a blender to 3 Centrifuged the mixture 4 Measured the

labeled phages with separate phages outside so that bacteria formed radioactivity in
bacteria. The phages the bacteria from the a pellet at the bottom of the pellet and
infected the bacterial cells. bacterial cells. the test tube. the liquid

Radioactive Empty Radioactivity

Phage protein protein shell (phage protein)
in liquid
Bacterial cell

Batch 1: Phages were DNA

grown with radioactive Phage
sulfur (35S), which was DNA
incorporated into phage Centrifuge
protein
Radioactive
DNA Pellet (bacterial
cells and contents)

Batch 2: Phages were

grown with radioactive
phosphorus (32P), which
was incorporated into
phage DNA Centrifuge
Radioactivity
(phage DNA)
Pellet
in pellet
RESULTS Phage proteins remained outside the bacterial cells during infection, while phage DNA entered the cells.
When cultured, bacterial cells with radioactive phage DNA released new phages with some radioactive phosphorus.

Figure 16.4 CONCLUSION

Hershey and Chase concluded that DNA, not protein, functions as the T2 phage’s genetic material.

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 Evidence of DNA structure
• Wilkins & Franklin
– made X-ray crystallography picture to see 3D
double helix
– Sugar-phosphate backbone

(a) Rosalind Franklin (b) Franklin’s X-ray diffraction

Figure 16.6 a, b Photograph of DNA
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 Bonds
• covalent (Phosphodiester) bonds link sugar
to phosphate (backbone)

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 Physical Structure: Watson & Crick
• DNA is double
stranded linear G C

molecule based A

T
T

on observations 1 nm

of X-ray
G C
3.4 nm
C G

crystallographic C
A

G
T

image of DNA
T A

T A

A
T

A T

Figure G C
0.34 nm
16.7a, c A T

(a) Key features of DNA structure (c) Space-filling model

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 DNA: Chemical Structure
– polymer of Sugar-phosphate
backbone
Nitrogenous
bases

nucleotide 5 end
O–
5
H
CH3
O
O P O CH2

monomers O– 4 H
H
O 1
H
H
N
H
N

3 2 O
H
Thymine (T)

1. nitrogenous base O
O

P O CH2
O
H
N
H
N
O– H H N H
H H N

2. 5 carbon sugar
N
H
H
Adenine (A)

(deoxyribose) O
O

P O CH2
O
H
H H
N H

O– H H N N
H H

3. phosphate group H O
Cytosine (C)

O
5
O P O CH2 H N
O 1 O
O 4 H
–
H N
Phosphate H H
2 N H
3 N DNA nucleotide
OH H
N H
Sugar (deoxyribose) H
Figure 16.5 3 end
Guanine (G)

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 Nitrogenous bases
– Purines (double rings)

1. adenine

2. guanine
– Pyrimidine (single ring)

1. thymine

2. cytosine

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 DNA Structure: Watson & Crick
– composed of two
antiparallel sugar-
phosphate backbones,
with nitrogenous
bases paired in interior
– purine bonds to a
pyrimidine; maintains
uniform diameter

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 LO4.1 & LO4.2: Antiparallel Structure: 3’ & 5’ ends

direction 5 end

O
OH

influences
P Hydrogen bond
–
O 3 end
O
OH
O

structure &
T A

O O CH2
O

function
P
–
O O
O O–
P
H2C O
O O
G C

O O CH2
O
P
–
O O
O–
O
P
H2C O
O O
C G

O O CH2
O
P O
–
O O–
O P
H2C O
O O
A T

O CH2
OH
3 end O
O–
P
O
O
(b) Partial chemical structure
Figure 16.7b 5 end

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 Structure: Watson & Crick
• specificity of pairing
– Dictated by the
structure of the
bases
– Consistent through
evolution

• Adenine & thymine: 2

hydrogen bonds
• cytosine & guanine: 3
hydrogen bonds
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 Base Pairing to a Template Strand
• 2 strands of DNA are complementary
– Each strand acts as a template for building a
new strand in replication
– If 1 side is GTCACT

– The other side MUST be _________

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 16.2 DNA synthesis (Goal LO3.3)
Describe using representations how genetic
information is copied & transferred between
generations of cells
• DNA replication (S stage of Interphase)
daughter cells
A T A T A
T
A T A T A T
C G C G C G C G C G C G
T A T A T A T A T A T A
A T A T A T A T A T A T
G C G C G C C G C G C
G

(a) The parent molecule has two (b) The first step in replication is (c) Each parental strand now (d) The nucleotides are connected
complementary strands of DNA. separation of the two DNA serves as a template that to form the sugar-phosphate
Each base is paired by hydrogen strands. determines the order of backbones of the new strands.
bonding with its specific partner, nucleotides along a new, Each “daughter” DNA
A with T and G with C. complementary strand. molecule consists of one parental
strand and one new strand.

Figure 16.9 a–d

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 Replication
• semiconservative First Second
Parent cell replication replication

– Each new Conservative

model. The two
parental strands

daughter
reassociate
after acting as
templates for
new strands,

molecule will
thus restoring
the parental
double helix.

have 1 old (a)

strand, and 1 Semiconservative

model. The two

new strand
strands of the
parental molecule
separate,
and each functions
as a template
(b) for synthesis of
a new, comple-

– Ensures mentary strand.

continuity of Dispersive
model. Each

genes (c)
strand of both
daughter mol-
ecules contains
a mixture of
old and newly
synthesized
DNA.

Figure 16.10 a–c

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 Initiation
– strands are unzipped by Helicase

– Prokaryotes have 1 origin (circular

chromosome)
– Eukaryotes have multiple origins (multiple
linear chromosomes)

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 Topoisomerase
• Allows DNA to be untangled when being
unwound & then reconnected again.
• [Link]
Supercoiled-DNA-topoisomerase

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 Elongation
• new DNA is made at replication fork
– catalyzed by enzymes: DNA polymerases

New strand Template strand

5 end 3 end 5 end 3 end

Sugar A T A T
Phosphate Base

C G C G

G C G C

A T A
T OH
P P P
P
P
C Pyrophosphate3 end C
OH
2 P
Nucleoside
Figure 16.13 triphosphate 5 end 5 end

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 • DNA polymerases add nucleotides
– Only to old 3end of a growing strand

• Leading strand
– DNA polymerase synthesizes a
complementary strand continuously, moving
toward the replication fork in a 5  3 direction

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 • To elongate the lagging strand
– DNA polymerase work away from replication
fork

• The lagging strand

– synthesized as segments: Okazaki
fragments, which are then joined together by
DNA ligase

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 Review: DNA replication
Overall direction of replication
Leading Lagging
1 Helicase unwinds the strand Origin of replication strand
parental double helix.
2 Molecules of single- 3 The leading strand is
strand binding protein synthesized continuously in the
stabilize the unwound 5 3 direction by DNA pol III. Lagging Leading
template strands.
strand OVERVIEW strand
DNA pol III

Leading
strand

5 Replication fork
DNA pol I DNA ligase
3
Primase 2
Parental DNA DNA pol III Lagging 1
Primer strand 3
4 Primase begins synthesis
3 5
of RNA primer for fifth 4
Okazaki fragment.

5 DNA pol III completes synthesis of 6 DNA pol I removes the primer from the 5 end 7 DNA ligase bonds
the fourth fragment, when it reaches the of the second fragment, replacing it with DNA the 3 end of the
RNA primer on the third fragment, nucleotides that it adds one by one to the 3 end second fragment to
move to the replication fork, of the third fragment. The replacement of the the 5 end of the first
and add DNA nucleotides to the 3 end last RNA nucleotide with DNA leaves fragment.
of the fifth fragment primer. a 3 end.
Figure 16.16
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 Proofreading and Repairing DNA
• DNA polymerases proofread
– In mismatch repair of DNA, Repair enzymes
correct errors in base pairing

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 • excision repair = Nuclease Enzymes cut out &
replace damaged DNA

1 A thymine dimer
distorts the DNA molecule.
2 A nuclease enzyme cuts
the damaged DNA strand
at two points and the
damaged section is
removed.
Nuclease

DNA 3 Repair synthesis by

polymerase a DNA polymerase
fills in the missing
nucleotides.

DNA
ligase 4 DNA ligase seals the
Free end of the new DNA
To the old DNA, making the
strand complete.
Figure 16.17

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 16.3 Chromosome structure
# Shape Histone Location Plasmids
Protein
Bacteria 1 Circular no Nucleoid Yes

Archaea 1 Circular some Nucleoid Yes

Eukaryote many Linear yes Nucleus no

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 Plasmids
• small extra chromosomal circular DNA
molecules
• Prokaryotes (Archaea & bacteria), viruses &
eukaryotes

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 eukaryotic chromosome replication

Origin of replication Parental (template) strand

0.25 µm
Daughter (new) strand

1 Replication begins at specific sites

where the two parental strands
separate and form replication
bubbles. Bubble Replication fork

2 The bubbles expand laterally, as

DNA replication proceeds in both
directions.

3 Eventually, the replication

bubbles fuse, and synthesis of
the daughter strands is
complete. Two daughter DNA molecules

(a) In eukaryotes, DNA replication begins at many sites along the giant (b) In this micrograph, three replication
DNA molecule of each chromosome. bubbles are visible along the DNA of
Figure 16.12 a, b a cultured Chinese hamster cell (TEM).

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 • [Link]
120076/[Link]

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