RADIATION

HAZARD
 Radiation
• Radiation is a type of energy, like
heat or light:
Emitted through space and matter.
Which cannot be detected by any
of our senses.
Types Of Radiation
 Ionizing Versus Non-ionizing Radiation
 Ionizing Radiation  Non-ionizing Radiation
 Higher energy  Lower energy
electromagnetic electromagnetic
waves (gamma) or waves.
heavy particles  Not enough energy
(beta and alpha). to pull electron from
 High enough orbit.
energy to pull  Moves in space at
electron from speed of light
orbit. 3 x 10^8 m/s.
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
 Electromagnetic Waves
• The electromagnetic waves:
 Vary in their length and frequency.
 Along a very wide spectrum.
 Electromagnetic Radiation Units
1. Photon energy (E ): Units of Energy:
Electron Volt (eV) = 1.6 x 10 ^ -19 (joule)
2. Wavelength (λ): One complete cycle of a
wave:
 Units of length: nanometers (nm, 10-9) or
micrometer (μm, 10-6)
3. Frequency (ƒ): Number of complete wave
cycles that occur in one second:
 Units of frequency: 1 hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per
second.
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
NON-IONIZING
RADIATION
(NIR)
 Non-Ionizing Radiation
• There are different types;
1. Ultra-Violet (UV) : Welding arcs, lasers.
2. Visible light : lamps, Fluorescent tubes,
welding arcs, lasers.
3. Infrared : heat lamps, electrical heaters,
welding process.
4. Radio waves : heating, signal transfer,
plastic sealing.
5. Microwaves : electromagnetic waves.
 Fundamental Characteristics of NIR
Region Wavelength Frequency
Ultraviolet 100–400 nm ——
UV- C 100–280 nm ——
UV- B 280–320 nm ——
UV- A 320–400 nm ——
Visible 400–770 nm ——
Infrared 770 nm –1 mm ——
IR-A 770 nm –1400 nm ——
IR-B 1.4µm – 3.0 µm ——
IR-C 3.0 µm – 1mm ——
Radio-Frequency (RF) —— 300 GHz–3 kHz
Extremely Low Frequency ---- 3 kHz–3 Hz
 NON-IONIZING
RADIATION HAZARD
 Non-Ionizing Radiation Hazard
• Non-ionizing radiation does not
penetrate deep into the tissues.
• But increases the risk of damage
to the skin and eyes.
 Ultraviolet Light
• Ultraviolet Light (UV) (100 – 400 nm):
1. Ultraviolet light is emitted by hot light sources such
as the sun, filament lamps, halogen lamps, welding
arcs (electrical welding) and gas discharge lamps
(mercury lamps).
2. Excessive exposure mainly poses a risk for the eyes
and skin.
3. Acute effects are sunburn and cornea inflammation
4. Long-term effects are skin cancer, skin thickening,
premature aging of the skin and clouding vision
(cataract).
 Visible Light and Infrared Light
 Visible Light and Infrared Light (IR) (0.4 - 1000 μm):
• Occur during work at high temperatures infrared light is
emitted
• For example during welding, forging and glassblowing, or from
heat lamps and plasma sources.
1. The biggest risks are for the eyes and skin.
2. IR-A poses the biggest risk (retinal damage and cataract).
3. IR-B and IR-C are less dangerous but can also cause cornea
damage after prolonged exposure.
4. The eyes are also sensitive for excessive light.
5. The greatest risk is in the 400-500 nm range.
6. Here the skin can be burnt.
 Radio Wave and Microwave Fields
 Radio Wave and Microwave Fields (10 MHz –
300 GHz):
• Sources are:
 High-frequency generators and transmitters,
Microwave ovens.
Industrial RF heaters.
Radio and TV antennae.
Radar installations.
Mobile phones.
 Radio Wave and Microwave Fields
 Radio Wave and Microwave Fields (10 MHz – 300
GHz):
• Exposure to electromagnetic fields in this frequency
range can warm up exposed tissues.
• Because these absorb the radio wave and microwave
energy and convert these into heat:
The frequency level determines the depth of penetration
into the body.
Warming up by this radiation is the most dangerous for the
brain, eyes, stomach, liver and kidneys.
Worldwide the maximum acceptable radiation level varies
from 10 mW/cm2 to 0.1 mW/cm2.
 Low-Frequency Fields
 Low-Frequency Fields (300 Hz – 10 MHz):
• The energy is absorbed throughout the
body but in differing degrees.
• The threshold value for energy
absorption, is 1 W/kg.
 Static Fields &
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) Fields
 Static Fields and Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)
Fields (0 – 300 Hz):
• Examples:
Fields develop in the direct vicinity of
overhead high-voltage power lines and
electrical cables.
Industrial electrolysis processes.
Conventional magnets (magnetic fields).
 Static Fields &
Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) Fields
 Static Fields and Extremely Low Frequency (ELF)
Fields (0 – 300 Hz)
• Exposure
No biological consequences of static fields have been
observed.
The most significant risk is electrical shock if an object is
touched.
Static magnetic fields cause slight electrical potential
differences in blood vessels.
The consequences of these are unknown.
 Artificial parts or aids for the human body such as
 LASER
HAZARDS
Laser Hazards
 Laser Hazards
• Especially hazardous due to very
narrow beam which can be very
intense.
• Especially dangerous for eyes:
Retinal burns.
Corneal burns.
 Laser Hazards
• Protective Measures:
Use minimum power laser possible for job.
Keep laser beam off or blocked when not in
use.
Post warning signs when lasers are in use.
Never look directly at a laser beam or align it
by sighting over it.
If possible, use laser in lighted room so that
pupils will be constricted.
Do not depend on sunglasses for shielding.
 SOURCES OF
NON-IONIZING
RADIATION
Sources of Non-Ionizing Radiation
CONTROL MEASURES FOR

NON-IONIZING
RADIATION
Protection Against Radiation
Engineering Administrative PPE
• Enclose/Shield • Clearly mark • RF/MW protective
work areas to controlled suits, including
minimize stray spaces. head and eye
radiation. • Minimize protection.
• Interlocked doors exposure times. • Safety glasses,
on devices that • Proper goggles.
can produce maintenance. • welding helmets,
acute thermal or welding face
injuries. shields with
• Remote operation appropriate filter
of radiation- lenses.
producing
devices.
Eliminate or substitute hazard, whenever feasible
RF/MW Protective Suits
RF/MW Protective Suits
Safety Glasses, Goggles
Welding Face Shields
IONIZING
RADIATION
 Ionizing Radiation
1. Alpha particles.
2. Beta particles.
3. Gamma.
4. X-ray.
5. Neutrons.
IONIZING RADIATION
UNITS
 Roentgen (R)
• (R) Is the measurement of energy
 Produced by Gamma or X-Ray radiation.
In a cubic centimeter of air.
• One milliroentgen, abbreviated "mR" is
one-thousandth of a roentgen.
• One microroentgen, abbreviated “µR”
is one-millionth of a roentgen.
 Radiation Absorbed Dose (RAD)
• RAD: Original measuring unit for expressing
the absorption of all types of ionizing radiation
(alpha, beta, gamma, neutrons, etc) into any
medium.
• One rad is equivalent to:
 The absorption of 100 ergs of energy per gram of
absorbing tissue.
1 erg = 10^−7 (J)
1 erg = 6.2415 x 10^11 (eV)
1 eV = 1.6 x 10 ^ -19 (J)
 Roentgen Equivalent Man (REM)
• REM: is a measurement that
correlates:
 The dose of any radiation.
To the biological effect of that radiation.
• Since not all radiation has the same
biological effect:
 The dosage is multiplied by a "quality
factor" (Q).
 Roentgen Equivalent Man (REM)
 For example:
A person receiving a dosage of gamma radiation will
suffer much less damage than:
A person receiving the same dosage from alpha
particles,
By a factor of three.
• So alpha particles will cause three times more
damage than gamma rays.
• Therefore, alpha radiation has a quality factor
of three.
 RAD & REM
• The difference between the rad and
rem is that:
The rad is a measurement of the
radiation absorbed by the material or
tissue.
The rem is a measurement of the
biological effect of that absorbed
radiation.
 SI Units
• S.I. units for radiation measurements
are:
1. “Gray” (Gy) for absorbed dose.
2. “Sievert” (Sv) for equivalent dose.
• The conversion from one system to
another is simple:
1 Sv = 100 rem
1 Gy = 100 rad
IONIZING RADIATION
HAZARD
 Ionizing Radiation Hazard
• Tissue burns:
Minor.
Destructive.
• DNA breaks leading to:
Cell death
Potentially cancer.
 Ionizing Radiation Hazard
• Radiation sickness occurs after exposure to a
very high dose of radiation:
 It normally leads to death.
• Exposure to a moderate dose can lead to
radiation tumors.
• Other effects are changes in the (DNA) like:
 Infertility.
 Malformation of the unborn child.
 Cancer.
Human Radiation Dose-Effect Data
DOSE (rems) PROBABLE EFFECT
0-25 No noticeable effect
25-100 Slight blood changes
100-200 Vomiting, fatigue
(recovery in weeks)
200-600 Vomiting, severe blood
changes, bleeding
(recovery in 1-12 mo.)

600-1000 Survival unlikely

IONIZING RADIATION
MONITORING DEVICES
 Radiation Monitoring Devices
1. Alpha:
 Proportional counters.
 Scintillation counters.
2. Beta, Gamma:
 Geiger-Mueller.
 Proportional counter.
3. X-ray, Gamma:
 Ionization chambers.
4. Neutrons:
 Proportional counters.
Scintillation Counters
Proportional Counters
Geiger-Mueller
Ionization Chambers
 Personal Dosimeters
• They provide a record of:
 Accumulated exposure for an individual worker
Over extended periods of time (hours, days or
weeks),
• They are small enough for measuring
localized exposures.
• Common types:
Film badges.
Thermo Luminescence Detectors (TLD).
Pocket dosimeters.
Film Badges
Thermo Luminescence Detectors (TLD)
Pocket Dosimeters
CONTROL MEASURES FOR
IONIZING RADIATION
 Basic Control Methods
• Time:
 Minimize time of exposure to minimize total dose.
 Rotate employees to restrict individual dose.

• Distance:
 Maximize distance to source to maximize attenuation in air.
 The effect of distance can be estimated from equations.

• Shielding:
 Minimize exposure by placing absorbing shield between
worker and source.
 Shielding
• Different types of ionizing radiation interact in different ways
with shielding material.
• The effectiveness of shielding is dependent on the Stopping
power of radiation particles.
• Which varies with:
 The type.
 Energy of radiation.
 The shielding material used.
• Different shielding techniques are therefore used dependent
on:
 The application
 Type of the radiation.
 Shielding
 Alpha Particles:
can easily be shielded by a single
sheet of paper.
cannot penetrate the outer layer of
skin.
They pose no danger when their
source is outside the human body.
 Shielding
 Beta Particles:
• can be shielded with less than an
inch of material such as plastic.
• In the case of lower energy beta
particles:
The outer layer of clothing can act as
an effective shield.
 Shielding
 Gamma Rays:
This very penetrating type of ionizing
radiation.
Requires thick dense material such as
several inches of lead or concrete.
 Shielding
 Neutrons:
Like gamma rays, are very
penetrating,
Several feet of concrete is needed to
shield against them.
 Administrative Controls
• Minimize time of exposure to minimize total
dose.
• Rotate employees to restrict individual dose.
• Maximize distance to source to maximize
attenuation in air.
• Place warning signs.
• Cordon off the areas around a radioactive source.
• Implement consequent personal hygiene.
• No eating, drinking or smoking at the workplace.
71
 Personal Protective Equipment

• Use specific personal protective

equipment.
Lead Vest Gamma & X Ray
 INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY
 Industrial Radiography
• Radiography technique is one of the most
widely utilized non-destructive methods
(NDT).
• Used in industry to:
Evaluate the structural integrity.
Find out the hidden details of an assembled
structure.
• Industrial Radiography can be performed
utilizing either X-rays or gamma rays.
 Industrial Radiography
• The vast majority of radiography in industry
concerns the testing and grading of welds
on:
Pressurized piping.
Pressure vessels.
High-capacity storage containers.
Pipelines.
Some structural welds.
 Industrial Radiography
• Other tested materials include:
Concrete (locating rebar or conduit).
Machined parts.
Metal Plate.
Pipe-wall (locating defects due to
corrosion or mechanical damage).
 Industrial Radiography
• Non-metal components such as:
Ceramics used in the aerospace industries are
also regularly tested.
• Theoretically, industrial radiographers could
radiograph:
 Any solid, flat material (walls, ceilings, floors).
Square or rectangular containers.
Any hollow cylindrical or spherical object.
Industrial Radiography
X-Ray NDT Tester
 SAFETY CONCERNS
IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
 Safety Concerns
• Since this method uses ionizing
radiation, it is important to ensure:
Not only the quality of product.
But also the safety of the technician
and the general public.
As well as the protection of the
environment.
 Safety Concerns
 Since the technique deals with very
large amounts of radiation during
testing periods:
• Improper practice could result in:
The technician and the public being exposed
to a large dose of radiation in just a few
seconds.
 Safety Concerns
• Therefore, a high degree of care and
professionalism is required for radiography
work.
• Moreover, contamination from a corroded
or damaged source can cause additional
radiation hazards to radiography personnel.
 Safety Concerns
 Protective Measures:
• The radiography procedure for a job is developed in
such a way that:
Only a minimum dose is received during practice.
• This is achieved through the:
 Proper design of radiography exposure installation.
Proper training of radiation workers.
Strict adherence to radiation safety rules.
Proper selection and maintenance of radiation sources.
THE END