The Skeletal System

Prof. B. Danborno, FASN, FHBA, FECAN, ITF+

Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
 What is the Skeletal System?
The skeletal system is the structural framework of
the body, composed of bones and connective tissues
that provide support, protection, and movement. It
serves as the foundation for the body’s shape and
plays crucial roles in various physiological
processes.
 What is the Skeletal System?....
The skeletal system consists of different components
that work together to support movement, protect vital
organs, and maintain body structure. These
components include bones, cartilage, ligaments,
and joints.
 Bones
Bones are the primary structural elements of the
skeletal system. The adult human body has 206
bones, which differ in size, shape, and function.
Types of Bone Tissue
• Compact Bone (Cortical Bone)
– Dense and strong.
– Found in the outer layer of all bones.
– Provides strength and resistance to
stress.
• Spongy Bone (Cancellous Bone)
– Less dense with a porous structure.
– Found at the ends of long bones and in the
interior of others.
– Contains red bone marrow for blood cell
production.
 Cartilage
Cartilage is a flexible Types of Cartilage:
connective tissue that • Hyaline Cartilage
• Most abundant type.
supports and cushions
• Found in the nose, trachea,
bones at joints. Unlike larynx, and covering the ends
bone, it lacks blood of bones at joints (articular
vessels and nerves. cartilage).
• Provides smooth surfaces for
joint movement.
 Cartilage…
Elastic Cartilage Fibrocartilage
• Contains more elastic • Tough and dense.
fibers. • Found in intervertebral
• Found in the external discs, knee menisci,
ear and epiglottis. and pubic symphysis.
• Provides flexibility and • Provides shock
resilience. absorption and tensile
strength.
 Ligaments • Flexibility: Allow controlled
movement.
• Ligaments are strong, fibrous • Examples of ligaments:
connective tissues that • Anterior Cruciate Ligament
connect bone to bone at (ACL) – Stabilizes the
joints. knee.
Functions of Ligaments: • Ligamentum Flavum –
• Stabilization: Prevent Connects vertebrae in the
excessive movement of joints. spine.
• Support: Maintain joint • Patellar Ligament –
integrity and prevent Connects the patella
dislocation. (kneecap) to the tibia.
Joints Types of Joints:
• Fibrous Joints –
Joints (articulations) are
the connections between Immovable (e.g., skull
bones that allow for sutures).
movement and flexibility. • Cartilaginous Joints –
They are classified based Slightly movable (e.g.,
on their structure and intervertebral discs).
function (explored in • Synovial Joints –
detail in later slides). Freely movable (e.g.,
knee, shoulder).
 Functions of Bones
• Support: Provides a framework for the body.
• Protection: Shields vital organs (e.g., skull
protects the brain).
• Movement: Serves as levers for muscles.
• Mineral Storage: Stores calcium, phosphorus, and
other minerals.
• Blood Cell Production: Houses bone marrow,
which produces blood cells.
The bones of the
skeleton
 Functions of Bones
Bones can be classified based on their shape and
location in the body. These classifications help in
understanding their functions, structural differences,
and clinical relevance.
 Long Bones
• Characteristics:
– Longer than they are wide.
– Have a shaft (diaphysis) and two ends (epiphyses).
– Contain bone marrow (red in young individuals, yellow
in adults).
• Function:
– Act as levers for movement.
– Provide structural support.
Anatomy of a Long Bone

Anatomy of a
Flat Bone
 Long Bones…
• Examples:
– Upper Limb: Humerus, radius, ulna.
– Lower Limb: Femur, tibia, fibula.
– Other: Metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges
(fingers and toes).
 Short Bones
• Characteristics:
– Nearly equal in length, width, and height (cube-shaped).
– Composed mainly of spongy bone with a thin outer layer of
compact bone.
• Function:
– Provide stability and support.
– Allow limited movement.
• Examples:
– Wrist bones (Carpals), Ankle bones (Tarsals)
 Flat Bones
• Characteristics:
– Thin, broad, and slightly curved.
– Composed of two layers of compact bone surrounding spongy
bone (diploë).
• Function:
– Protect vital organs.
– Serve as attachment sites for muscles.
• Examples:
– Cranial bones (e.g., frontal, parietal, occipital)
– Ribs, Sternum, Scapula (shoulder blade)
Classification of There are 6
categories
Bone by Shape

a) Long – d) Irregular –

e) Sesamoid –
b) Short –

f) Sutural –

c) Flat –
 Irregular Bones
• Characteristics:
– Have complex shapes that don’t fit into other
categories.
– Composed of both compact and spongy bone.
• Function:
– Provide structural support and protection.
– Contribute to movement.
• Examples:
– Vertebrae, Sacrum, Mandible (lower jaw), Sphenoid
and Ethmoid bones in the skull
 Sesamoid Bones
• Characteristics:
– Small, round, and embedded within tendons.
– Develop in response to mechanical stress.
• Function:
– Reduce friction.
– Protect tendons from excessive wear.
• Example:
– Patella (kneecap) – The largest sesamoid bone.
 Classification by Location
• Bones are also classified based on their location in the
body. The skeleton is divided into two major parts:
Axial Skeleton (80 bones)
• Forms the central framework of the body.
• Supports and protects the brain, spinal cord, and vital
organs in the thoracic cavity.
Components:
– Skull (Cranium and facial bones)
– Vertebral column (Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx)
– Thoracic cage (Ribs and sternum)
 Constituents of Bone
Organic (~1/3) Inorganic (~2/3)
Collagen 80% Calcium
(and some other proteins) Hydroxyapatite
Ca3(PO4)2.(OH)2
Specialized Bone Cells
(4) 15% Calcium Carbonate
Glycosaminoglycans CaCO3
(GAGs)
5% Other Minerals:
Mg, SO4, Na, K
Gives Bone Flexibility! Gives Bone Rigidity!
Bone soaked in acetic acid
to de-mineralize it…

Heating bone
destroys proteins in it…

Makes it very brittle

Compact Bone
 Specialized Bone Cells
Osteoprogenitor cells Osteoblasts Osteocytes

Osseo Lineage

Stem cells Osteoclasts

Myeloid Lineage
 Hormonal Control of Bone Tissue
Human Growth Hormone (hGH):
(Pituitary gland)

Thyroxine: (Thyroid gland) Stimulate

Osteoblasts
Sex Hormones: (Ovaries and Testes)
(estrogen, progesterone, testosterone)

Calcitonin: (Thyroid gland) Inhibits Osteoclasts

Parathyroid Hormone: (Parathyroid Stimulates Osteoclasts

gland)
Increases Ca2+ absorption from
Calcitriol: (Skin to kidneys) intestine,
Decreases Ca2+ loss in urine.
 2 Types of Ossification
1. Intramembranous Ossification
Mesoderm
Mesenchymal cells
Osteoprogenitor cells

Osteoblast

Osteocytes in bone tissue

 2. Endochondral ossification - most
bones formed this way
• Bone replaces a cartilage model of bone .
• Blood vessels migrate into center cartilage bone (cavities
left by dying chondrocytes).
• Mesenchymal cells brought with the blood and
differentiate into Osteoblasts.
• Osteoblasts replace cartilage with spongy bone =>
becomes primary ossification center.
• Creates spongy bone in shaft remodeled (osteoclasts) into
a marrow cavity, outer compact bone.
 2. Endochondral ossification - most
bones formed this way
• Then, secondary ossification center begins at each
epiphysis of bone. This leaves a cartilage band at
metaphysis - called the epiphyseal plate (growth plate).
• Length-wise growth of long bones occurs at epiphyseal
plate as chondrocytes enlarge and become more active
but then cartilage ossifies creating the epiphyseal line,
ceasing bone growth.
• Cartilage left at articulating ends = Articular Cartilage.
 2. ENDOCHONRAL OSSIFICATION

Starts as a cartilage
model of bone
 Appositional Bone Growth

Bones can increase in thickness after length-wise growth stops =

Appositional Bone Growth.

Process by which old bone lining medullary cavity is reabsorbed and new
bone produced beneath the periosteum, increasing the bone diameter.
Bone Remodeling: Depositing and removing bone tissue!
Notice all of the
features and terms
used for the elements
of a bone in the body
Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones)
• Comprises the bones of the limbs and girdles that
connect them to the axial skeleton.
• Components:
– Pectoral Girdle: Clavicle and scapula.
– Upper Limbs: Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals,
phalanges.
– Pelvic Girdle: Hip bones (ilium, ischium, pubis).
– Lower Limbs: Femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals,
phalanges.
 Bony Landmarks
Articulations Depressions
condyle - alveolus -
facet - fossa -
head - fovea -
sulcus or groove -
Extensions & Projections
crest - Passages
epicondyle - canal or meatus -
line - foramen (foramina) -
process - fissure -
trochanter -
tubercle -
tuberosity -
spine -
The Appendicular Skeleton
= The Pectoral and Pelvic Girdles
The Os Coxa is
made of 3
bones:
1) Ilium;
2) Ischium;
and
3) 3) Pubis
Table with information regarding sexual dimorphism of the pelvis.
Characteristics Female Male
General Appearance Less massive, smaller, thinner More massive, larger, thicker
Ischial Spine More vertical, Projected more medially
Projected laterally (outward) (inwardly)
Sacrum Shorter, more broad Taller, more narrow
less curved anteriorly more curved anteriorly
Coccyx less curved anteriorly more curved anteriorly
Width of Pelvis Wider (shallow) Narrower (deep)
(distance across ASIS’s) (distance across ASIS’s)
Pelvic Inlet More wide, oval shaped More narrow, heart shaped
Pelvic Outlet More open More narrow
Pubic Symphysis Shorter Longer
Pubic Arch (Angle) Broader, more open (obtuse) Narrower, less open (acute)
Angle 100o or greater Angle 90o or less
Greater Sciatic Notch More wide More narrow
Obturator Foramen More oval shaped More round shaped
Acetabulum More shallow, and angled More deep, and angled more
toward the anterior toward the lateral
 Axial Skeleton
The axial skeleton forms the central framework of the
human body, supporting and protecting vital organs
such as the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. It
consists of 80 bones, including the skull, vertebral
column, and thoracic cage (rib cage).
 Axial Skeleton…
The Skull (22 Bones)
• The skull is a bony structure that encloses the brain and
provides attachment sites for muscles of the head and
neck. It consists of two major parts:

The Cranium (8 Bones)

• Encloses and protects the brain.
• Provides attachment points for head and neck muscles.
 Axial Skeleton…
• Cranial bones:Frontal bone – Forms the forehead.
• Parietal bones (2) – Form the superior and lateral aspects of the
skull.
• Temporal bones (2) – House the inner ear structures.
• Occipital bone – Contains the foramen magnum (where the
spinal cord connects to the brain).
• Sphenoid bone – Butterfly-shaped bone that forms part of the
eye socket and skull base.
• Ethmoid bone – Forms part of the nasal cavity and the medial
part of the eye socket.
 Axial Skeleton…
The Facial Bones (14 Bones)
• Form the structure of the face.
• Support soft tissues of the face and allow for the
attachment of muscles for facial expression and
mastication.
• Facial bones:
– Mandible (1) – The only movable bone of the skull; forms the
lower jaw.
– Maxillae (2) – Form the upper jaw and hold the upper teeth.
 Axial Skeleton…
– Zygomatic bones (2) – Form the cheekbones.
– Nasal bones (2) – Form the bridge of the nose.
– Lacrimal bones (2) – Small bones in the eye socket that
contain the tear ducts.
– Palatine bones (2) – Form the back part of the hard palate.
– Inferior nasal conchae (2) – Form part of the lateral walls of
the nasal cavity.
– Vomer (1) – Forms part of the nasal septum.
 Axial Skeleton…
• The Thoracic Cage (Rib Cage) (25 Bones)
• The thoracic cage protects the heart, lungs, and major
blood vessels while supporting the upper body.
• A. The Sternum (1 Bone)
• Also called the breastbone.
• Composed of three parts:
– Manubrium – Uppermost part that articulates with the clavicles
and first ribs.
– Body – Middle portion that connects with most ribs.
– Xiphoid process – Small, cartilaginous lower section that
ossifies with age.
 Axial Skeleton…
The Ribs (24 Bones – 12 Pairs)
• The ribs form a protective cage around the thoracic
organs.
• Classification of ribs:
– True ribs (1-7): Directly connected to the sternum via costal
cartilage.
– False ribs (8-10): Connected to the sternum indirectly via
cartilage.
– Floating ribs (11-12): Do not connect to the sternum.
 Functions of the Axial Skeleton
• Protection:
– The skull protects the brain.
– The vertebral column shields the spinal cord.
– The thoracic cage protects the heart and lungs.
• Support:
– Provides the framework for the body.
– Supports soft tissues and maintains posture.
 Functions of the Axial Skeleton
• Movement:
– The vertebral column allows flexibility and movement.
– The ribs expand and contract during breathing.
• Attachment for Muscles:
– Muscles attach to bones to facilitate movement.
• Blood Cell Formation:
– The sternum and vertebrae contain red bone marrow for
hematopoiesis.
Cranial Bones

Facial Bones
Inferior View of the Skull
The Holes in the Skull!
Mandible Bone
Sinuses in the skeletal system are
cavities or chambers in bone.
Roles: * Lighten weight of skull
* Produce mucus
* Sound resonation

There are 4 paranasal sinuses

1. Frontal sinus
2. Maxillary sinus
3. Sphenoidal sinus
4. Ethmoidal sinus (air cells)
Fontanels are the fibrous regions
between the cranial bones of a developing
skull.
• Provide flexibility for growing brain.

• Allows distortion of skull during birth.

• Most fontanels are fully fused by 12

months.
• Anterior fontanel does not close for 18 to
20 months of age = “soft spot” on baby
head!
Bones of the vertebral column Curvatures:

Cervical, the top 7 The Cervical Curvature

is a secondary curvature

The Thoracic Curvature

Thoracic, attach to ribs, there is a primary curvature
are 12, cause there are 12
pairs of ribs!

The Lumbar Curvature

Lumbar, big bottom ones! is a secondary curvature

Sacral and coccyx , The Sacral Curvature

these babies are all fused! is a primary curvature
Vertebrae – The bones of the vertebral
column.
There are a total of 33 total bones in the 4 regions:
24 separate vertebrae
+ sacrum (5 fused vertebrae)
+ coccyx (4 fused vertebrae)
Cervical vertebrae = 7 bones, (C1, C2, C3 etc.)
Thoracic vertebrae = 12 bones, (T1, T2, etc.)
Lumbar vertebrae = 5 bones, (L1, L2, etc.)


Total = 24 individual bones

Sacral vertebrae – 5 fused bones, (S1, S2, etc.)
Coccygeal vertebrae – 4 fused bones, (Co1, Co2, etc.)
 1. Unique Features of Cervical Vertebrae

Bifid spinous process

Transverse foramen

These ones are instantly recognizable due

to the ‘holes’ in the transverse processes!

2. Unique Features of Thoracic Vertebrae

Sharp, downward angle of spine

Costal facets on transverse process

Superior articulating processes are like

‘two hands up’ in orientation

Costal facets on body

Only ones with attachments for ribs!

3. Unique Features of Lumbar
Vertebrae

Short, blunt spine

Superior articulating processes are like

‘two hands clapping’ in orientation!

Large body
Thoracic vertebrae – 12 bones, (T1, T2, etc.)
- Have costal facets for attachment of ribs.
 Lumbar
Vertebrae
There are 3 types of ribs:
• Vertebrosternal (true) rib 7
• Vertebrocostal (false) rib 3
• Vertebral (floating) rib 2
How many bones make up the orbit?
What are they?
 Joints/Articulations
A joint, also known as an articulation, is the
connection between two or more bones in the body.
Joints play a vital role in movement, stability, and
flexibility, allowing the skeleton to perform a wide
range of functions while maintaining its structural
integrity.
 Components of Joints
• Joints consist of various structural components, which vary
based on the type of joint.
• Bones:
– Bones form the structure of joints and articulate with each other at
joint surfaces.
• Cartilage:
– Reduces friction and acts as a cushion between articulating bones.
– Example: Hyaline (articular) cartilage at synovial joints.
• Ligaments:
– Strong connective tissues that connect bones to one another and
stabilize joints.
 Components of Joints
• Tendons:
– Attach muscles to bones, allowing movement of joints when
muscles contract.
• Joint Capsule:
– A fibrous membrane that encloses and protects synovial
joints, providing structural support.
• Synovial Fluid:
– Found in synovial joints, it lubricates the joint and reduces
friction during movement.
 Classification of Joints
• Joints can be classified based on their structure and
function.
• 1. Structural Classification
• Based on the type of tissue that connects the bones.
• A. Fibrous Joints
• Bones are joined by dense fibrous connective tissue.
• No cavity is present between the bones.
 Classification of Joints
• Immovable (synarthrosis) or allow minimal
movement.
• Examples:
– Sutures: Immovable joints in the skull.
– Syndesmoses: Slightly movable joints held together by
a ligament (e.g., between tibia and fibula).
 Cartilaginous Joints
• Bones are joined by cartilage, either hyaline or
fibrocartilage.
• Allow limited movement (amphiarthrosis).
• Types of Cartilaginous Joints:
– Synchondroses:
• Bones connected by hyaline cartilage.
• Example: Epiphyseal plate (growth plate).
– Symphyses:
• Bones joined by fibrocartilage.
• Example: Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis.
 Cartilaginous Joints
Synchondrosis – joined by hyaline Symphysis – joined by Fibrocartilage
Epi
p
cartilage.
hys
is

Dia
phy
sis

Epiphyseal plate

intervertebral joints

1st sternocostal joint Pubic symphysis

 Synovial Joints
• Bones are separated by a fluid-filled joint cavity.
• Most common type of joint in the body.
• Allow free movement (diarthrosis).
• Key Components:
– Articular cartilage.
– Joint capsule.
– Synovial fluid.
– Ligaments.
– Tendons and bursae (fluid-filled sacs).
• Examples: Knee joint, shoulder joint, elbow joint.
Generalized Synovial Joint Synovial
Joints
Articular (joint) Capsule
- Outer ‘fibrous’ layer
(dense irregular c.t.)
- Inner ‘cellular’ layer
(synovial membrane)
 2. Functional Classification

• Based on the degree of movement permitted by the joint.

• Synarthrosis (Immovable Joints):
– Permit no movement.
– Example: Sutures of the skull.
• Amphiarthrosis (Slightly Movable Joints):
– Permit limited movement.
– Example: Symphysis pubis, intervertebral discs.
• Diarthrosis (Freely Movable Joints):
– Permit a wide range of movements.
– Example: Synovial joints like the shoulder and hip joints.
 Diarthroses
Joints characterized by their high mobility and having a joint
cavity within a synovial membrane encased in the joint
capsule. Diarthrotic joints are also known as Synovial joint

6 Types of Synovial Joints

• Gliding (Planar) • Hinge • Pivot • Ellipsoidal/Condyloid

• Saddle • Ball and Socket

 Types of Synovial Joints
(Based on Shape and Motion)
• Synovial joints are classified based on their structure and range of
motion:
• Plane (Gliding) Joints:
– Flat surfaces that slide against each other.
– Example: Intercarpal joints (wrist).
• Hinge Joints:
– Permit movement in one plane (flexion and extension).
– Example: Elbow joint, knee joint.
• Pivot Joints:
– Allow rotational movement around a central axis.
– Example: Atlantoaxial joint (between the first two cervical vertebrae).
 Types of Synovial Joints
(Based on Shape and Motion)
• Condyloid Joints:
– Allow movement in two directions (flexion/extension,
abduction/adduction).
– Example: Wrist joint.
• Saddle Joints:
– Allow a greater range of motion than condyloid joints.
– Example: Thumb joint (carpometacarpal joint).
• Ball and Socket Joints:
– Allow movement in all directions (flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, and rotation).
– Example: Hip joint, shoulder joint.
 Gliding Joint
These joints occur as short boxy bone surfaces
move past each other. See at wrist, ankles, and
spine.

Carpals of the hand Intercarpal joints

Tarsal joints
(navicular two cuneiforms)
Intertarsal joints

Vertebral Column
Facets of intervertebral joints
 Pivot Joint
1) Atlantoaxial joint
Formed between the atlas (C1) and the axis (C2)
cervical vertebrae of neck.

For the “no” gesture,

Shaking head left to right.

2) Proximal radioulnar joint

Consists of the radial head articulating with the
radial notch of the ulna. The disc-like head of
radius tightly bound by the annular ligament
securing it in place.
Allows the pivot action of pronation/supination.
 Hinge Joint
Humeroulnar joint of the elbow.

Interphalangeal joints of the hand.

Tibiofemoral join of the knee.

 Condyloid/Ellipsoid Joint

Metacarpophalangeal joints II through V.

Distal radiocarpal joint of the wrist

 Saddle Joint
1st Carpometacarpal joint – the thumb joint
(trapeziometacarpal)

Sternoclavicular joint of the thorax

Calcaneocuboid joint of the heel

Sternoclavicular
joint

Intercarpal and
Intertarsal
joints

Elbow joint
Knee joint
Ankle joint
Interphalangeal
joints

Atlantoaxial
joint

Proximal
Radioulnar
Joint
(pronate/supinate)
 Radiocarpal
Joint

Metacarpophalangeal
Joints (2-5)

Trapeziometacarpal
Joint
(1st carpometacarpal)

Hip
joint

Shoulder
joint
Movements (Actions) at Articulations
Structures that Stabilize
Synovial Joints

Ligaments

Menisci

Bursae

Fat pads

Tendons
Disorders of Articulations
• Arthritis: Inflammation of a synovial joint, that is
often painful and restricts movement at that joint.
• Osteoarthritis: “Wear and tear” age-related
arthritis, due to use of the joint.
• Rheumatoid Arthritis: Autoimmune disease, in
which the body’s defense cells attack synovial
joints.
• Ankylosis: Abnormal fusion of a joint, restricting
normal movement.
 Disorders of Articulations
• Bursitis: Inflammation of a bursa, causing pain when
ever the associated ligament or tendon moves.
• Gout (Gouty Arthritis): Uric acid deposits in
synovial joints and crystallizes there, causing pain
and restricting movement.
• Sprain: When a ligament is stretched beyond
normal, to where some collagen fibers are torn.
• Luxation: Dislocation, when articulating
surfaces are forced out of anatomical position.