TERRESTRIAL

CHEMISTRY
GEOSPHERE - solid earth
- part of the earth where human extract most of
their food minerals and fuel
Division:
Core - 4000 miles Fe and Ni with solid center
solid Fe rich inner core and the molten outer core
Mantle - 1800 miles thick, Fe, Mg and silicate --- > inner
plastic like
- lithosphere- outer mantle and crust
Crust outermost 20 to 30 miles over the land, 3 to 5 miles
over the ocean floor, consist of soil, rocks, bedrock
containing minerals
layer ---- > sial - behaves like granite rock in terms
of density and transmission of seismic wave energy sound
under continents and continental shelves
----- > sima - behaves like basalt rock, found
under continental and oceanic areas
LITHOSPHERE - rock layer
 65 to 100 km (40-60 miles thick
 Relatively cool, outermost layer, view as a rigid shell
 Broken into different plates, consist of crust and the upper mantle
 With rigid brittle rock
Crust - lighter element , Si, K and Na
Asthenosphere -rock is hot and plastic like that flows although solid
(100-350 deep)
then at the base of the mantle becomes more rigid and less
plastic
Moho - boundary between crust and mantle, sudden change in the
speed of seismic waves occur
 Mantle - rock denser and dark colored (peridotite) , Composed of
minerals olivine and pyroxene (Fe and Mg) , 2885 km thick ,shell of
rocks, 70% of earth’s volume
Temp. range 100 to 4000 oC (core boundary), solid rock (high P)
Core - 1215 km thick solid Fe and Ni surrounded by liquid Fe , outer core
(2270 km thick) , density is 13, temperature is 6400 oC

Continental Drift Hypothesis (Alfred Wegener- constructed map of the earth)

Hypothesize that all continents were joined together (pangea –
supercontinent)

Pangea - drifted into smaller continent

 Continental jigsaw puzzle – similarity between coastline and continental

shelves on the opposite sides of the south atlantic (continents were once
connected)
 Fossils - identical fossils on the widely separated land masses (South
America and Africa – fern Glossopteries and sharp toothed reptile mesosaurus)
 Rock types and structures match (folded mountain ranges-cape of good
hope africa and argentina
Minerals - naturally occuring inorganic chemical compounds or
elements with definite internal crystal structure and chemical
composition
found in soil, rock and water
net result of natural forces acting on earth’s matter in area through
a given length of time
formed in various ways

Classification According to Formation

quartz , mica and feldspar - derived directly from magma

gypsum, sulfate and rock salts - form deposits when bodies of water
evaporated
silica, clay and bauxite - develop when certain rocks are subjected
to weathering and erosion
limestone (crystalline calcite) - arise from transformation of rocks
brought about by heat and pressure.
Classification According to Elements

1. elemental minerals - chemically inactive

Ex. graphite and diamond
C, S, Au, Cu, Ag, Pt

2. sulfide minerals - metals with S , heavy and show metallic

luster
Ex. Fe, pyrites (fools gold), ore of Pb, Hg Zn

3. Oxide Minerals - complex compounds of metals with

Oxygen, sometimes hydrogen and water; show metallic
luster Al2O3, ZnO, Cu2O

[Link] - Compounds of S, O and different metals ,

sometimes with water hydrous and anhydrous, CaSO4.H2O
5. Carbonates - compounds of C and O with metals, soft,
soluble in acid
Ex. CaCO3 (calcite), CaMgCO3 (dolomite)

6. Halides - salts made up of metals and halogens

Ex. NaCl

7. Silicates - Si, O with other elements, most important

rocks
Ex. silica or quartz (SiO2) constituent of most
sands, feldspar, micas,
clays, asbestos, garnet and zircon

8. Ore of vanadium
Properties Useful in Identifying Minerals

hardness density
tenacity color

cleavage luster
streak parting
crystal form fracture

specific gravity
Properties of Minerals
1. Color varies due to impurities
2. Luster depends on the way the mineral reflects
light, can be glassy, metallic, pearly or dull
3. streak is the color of the mineral in powdered form
4. hardness is the resistance of the mineral from
being scratched for talc hardnessscale is one and
10 for diamonds
5. cleavage manner in w/c minerals breaks along
planes and angles which planes intersect
6. specific gravity
Major Mineral Groups in the Earth’s Crust
Mineral Group Examples Formula

silicates quartz SiO2

olivine (MgFe)2SiO4
potassium feldspar KAlSi3O8

Oxides Corundum Al2O3

Magnetite Fe3O4

carbonates Calcite CaCO3

dolomite CaCO3.MgCO3

Sulfides pyrite FeS2

galena PbS

Sulfates gypsum CaSO4-2H2O

Halides Halite NaCl

Fluorite CaF2

Native Elements Cu Cu
S S
Volcanic Sublimates - mineral that are
gaseous at the magnetic temperature of
volcanoes

( 2H2O + SiF4 ----- > 4 HF + SiO2 )

Rocks - solid cohesive mass of pure

minerals or an aggregate of 2 or more
minerals
ROCKS

The Rock Cycle

 Magma cools and solidifies to form igneous rocks (crystallization)

 Igneous rocks at the surface decompose and disintegrate (weathering) then
transported by erosion agents such as wind, waves running water or glaciers to
form the sedimentary rocks by process of compaction and cementation
(lithification)
 Sedimentary rocks buried deep when subjected to high pressure and temperature
is turn into metamorphic rock
 A rock undergoing metamorphism at even higher may begin to melt to form
magma
Alternately the magma
- might cool and crystallize beneath the surface as igneous rock
- increase in temperature and pressure may form new metamorphic rock
- could remelt and on cooling form new igneous rock
- could brought to the surface, exposed to erosion leading to formation of new
sedimentary rock
Types of Rocks

1. Igneous rock - solidified magma formed under

water deficient chemically reducing condition s of high
temperature and high pressure

 exposed igneous rocks are under wet, oxidizing, low

temperature and low pressure so not in equilibrium with
surrounding thus disintegrate by weathering

 rapid cooling results in fine grained rocks

Ex. basalt ( dark colored and has high specific gravity)

 slow cooling results in coarse grained rocks

Ex. granite - crystal of quartz and feldspar light gray
to pink in color used for construction and monument
Igneous rock forms when
magma cools and makes
crystals.
Magma is a hot liquid made
of melted minerals. When
magma pours onto the
earth’s surface it is called
lava. The minerals can form
crystals when they cool.
Igneous rock can form
underground, where the
magma cools slowly or can
form above ground, where
the magma cools quickly.
The crystals grow together
and form one igneous rocks.
 INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS – igneous rocks formed by
magma that cools beneath the Earth’s surface , forced to
the surface where they exist as masses of rock (plutons),
largest type of exposed plutons are called batholiths
Ex. Sierra Nevada mountain ranges – large batholiths
of igneous rock

EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS – igneous rocks formed by

LAVA ON Earth’s surface, they are quickly cooling rock
that comes from the volcanoes or fissures in the earth’s
surface has small smooth crystals
Ex. Obsidian rock

2 Types of Igneous Rocks

Classification of Igneous Rocks
 Based on Texture - overall appearance based on size and
arrangement of interlocking crystals

Fine grained - consist of very small crystals form

rapidly at the surface

Coarse grained - have the appearance of a mass of

intergrown crystals; formed when large masses of magma
solidify far below the surface Ex. granite

Porphyritic - have large crystals embedded in a

matrix of smaller crystals; formed when magma that
contains large crystals suddenly erupts at the surface

Glassy - formed when a molten rock is ejected by a

volcano into the atmosphere where it is quenched very
rapidly Ex. Obsidian and pumice
Based on Chemical Composition- as magma cools certain
minerals crystallize first at high temp. then successively at
lower temp other minerals crystallize (Bowen’s reaction series)

Temp range Bowen’s Reaction Series composition

(rock type)
Cooling magma
High temp olivine
ultramatic
Pyroxene
mafic
Amphibole
Biotite mica
intermediate
Low temp Potassium feldspar felsic
Muscovite mica
quartz
Sedimentary rocks form
from particles deposited by
water and wind
If you have ever walked
along a beach (which I am
sure you have) you may
have noticed tiny sand
grains, mud, and pebbles.
These are some sediments
that eventually form into
sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary Rocks can
form in 4 ways by:
Erosion
Deposition
Compaction
Cementation
2. Sedimentary - formed from the mineral
sediments of various origin carried by water , wind,
or glaciers, deposited in layers and are
transformed into rock by the pressure of
overlying deposits and slow chemical action over
million of years, undergo cementation and
recrystallization before converted to solid rock,
consist of quartz, calcite and clay

Ex. fossils - imprints of plants, skeleton, organism

may accumulate in water
deposited layer
 Limestone - consist mainly of calcite which
precipitate in sea water as a result
of biochemical action;
- most fossils are found,
- source of fertilizer chemicals and is
used in construction

 Quartz - make up sandstone, cemented

together by calcite, dolomite or any Fe
oxides, building material

 Shale - fine grained rock composed of clay

with little quartz and dolomite
3. Metamorphic
- igneous or sedimentary rocks which
were changed by heat and
pressure resulting to complete melting
and recrystallization

Ex. Marble - derived from dolomite or

limestone, non foliated metamorphic rock
When classifying a rock sample geologists
observe the rock’s color and texture and
determine its mineral composition.
Texture: the size, shape, and pattern of the
rock’s grain.
Color: the apparent color of the rock, on the
inside and the outside.
Mineral composition: The minerals that make
up the different parts of a rock.
 Often, the grains in a rock are large and easy to see.
Such rocks are said to be coarse-grained. In other rocks,
the grains are so small that they can only be seen with a
microscope.
These rocks are said to be fine-grained.
Notice the difference in texture between the fine-grained
slate and the coarse-grained diorite to the right.

Texture: Grain Size

Different Types of Texture
Fine-Grained, Coarse-Grained, Rounded Grain, Jagged Grain,
Nonbanded, Banded
Geochemistry- deals with chemical species reactions and
processes in the lithosphereand their interaction with
atmosphere and hydrosphere
Weathering - disintegration of rocks due to physical and
chemical factors
Physical/Mechanical Weathering
1. pressure exerted by water as it freezes in rock crevices
2. changes in temperature
3. burrowing animals
4. Alternate wet periods and severe drying
5. Swelling and shrinking of minerals
6. Hydration and dehydration
7. Growth of rocks through cracks in rocks
Chemical Weathering

1. reaction of H2CO3 in ground water with

minerals in rocks like CaCO3 in
limestone
2. Dissolution and precipitation
3. action of oxygen - FeO from
ferromagnesium silicates
4. Hydration, dehydration, oxidation, reduction acid
hydrolysis, complexation ,acid base reaction
Clay - group of macrocrystalline secondary minerals of
hydrous aluminum silicates that have sheet like
structure

Al2(OH)2Si4O10 montimorillonite

Al2Si2O5(OH)4 kaolinite

Soil - variable mixture of minerals, organic matter and

water capable of
supporting plant life on the earth’s surface, has
loose texture, contains air
spaces, final product of weathering action
Soil Chemistry

Macronutrient in Soil
occur in substantial levels
C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S

Micronutrient - needed by plants at low levels , toxic at high

level

B, Cl, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn

Inorganic Components of soil

Common soil minerals are quartz, orthoclase, albite, epidote,
geophite, magnetite, calcium and magnesium carbonate and
oxides of Mn and Ti
Major Classes of Organic Compounds in Soil

Compound Type Composition Significance

Humus degradation-resistant residue most abundant organic

from plant decay largely C,H,O component improve
soil prop. source of fixed
N ,exchange nutrients

Fats,resins and waxes lipids extractable by organic water repelling property

solvents ofsoil (phytotoxic)

Saccharides cellulose, starch,gums food source for soil

microorganism
stabilize soil aggregates

N containing N bound to humus amino provide N for soil

organics acids sugars fertility

P compounds PO4 esters, phospholipids source of plants PO4

inositol phosphate
Soil classification
A. based on location
1. alluvial soil (deposited by water)
2. colluvial soil (deposited by gravity)
3. aeolian soil (deposited by wind)

B. based on parent material

1. volcanic soil
2. limestone soil

C. based on texture
1. clay 3. silt
2. sand 4. loam
Production of mineral acid in soil

 The oxidation of pyrite in soil causes formation of acid

sulfate soils (cat clays)

FeS2 + 7/2O2 + H2O -- > Fe+2 + 2H+ + 2SO4

 Soil
reclaimed from marhsland is acidic with H2S from
reaction of FeS2 w/ acid is detrimental to plant growth.

 Soilare tested for acid sulfate formation using peroxide

test (oxidizing FeSO2 in the soil w/ 30% H2O2
Adjustment of Soil acidity
Plants grow best in soil with pH near neutrality
Acidic soil maybe restored by liming (addition of calcium carbonate)

Soil }(H+)2+CaCO3  Soil}Ca+2 +CO2+H2O

Basic soil due to basic salts Na2CO3 in low areas of low rainfall maybe
treated with Al or FeSO4 w/c release acid on hydrolysis

2Fe+3 + 2SO4-2 +6H2O  2Fe(OH)3(s)+ 6H+ +

3SO4-3

Sulfur added to soils is oxidized bt bacterilly mediated reaction to

sulfuric acid

S + 3/2 O2 + H2O  2H+ + SO4-2

Agriculture-production of food by growing crops and
livestock which provides for human basic needs

Environmental damage in agriculture

1. displacement of native plants
2. destruction of wildlife habitat
3. erosion
4. pesticide/fertilizer pollution
Acid-base and ion exchange reaction in soil

Cation exchange in soil is the mechanism by which K,Ca, Mg

and essential trace metals are made available to plants
Waste and Pollutants in Soil

volatile organic compounds (VOC) -

benzene, toluene, xylene,
dichloromethane, trichloroethane

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)

pesticides
insecticides
Solid waste all litter that clutters and pollutes land
affecting its aesthetic quality
of life- papers, scraps, rubber, junks, plastic bottles,
cans, industrial waste

Classification

biodegradable / non biodegradable

fermentable / non fermentable

compostable / non compostable

Disposal Method

sanitary landfill - refuse is dumped , spread in layers,

compacted, and then covered with earth daily
cover - keep off pests and scavengers, seal off odor
compaction - provides more effective control of CH4
gas
save land space
site - must need public approval

composting - compostable are piled up in a compost fir,

can or shed, moistened, covered with earth, turned
periodically to allow aeration (for degradation)
acted by microorganism -- > humus

burning - using incinerator; release dangerous gas