BASIC MAPPING
PROCESSES
EPM 25 – LECTURE 5
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OUTLINE
I. Earth’s Shape and Size
II. Locational Systems
III. Standardizing Map Accuracy
IV. Geodetic Control Surveys
V. Plane Control Surveys
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Earth’s Shape
• Erastosthenes
– Greek mathematician, 250
B.C.
– Measured the Earth’s size
using observations and
geometry
• Earth
– Oblate spheroid
– Polar flattening because of
centrifugal force as it rotates.
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Earth’s Shape
• Diameter
– Polar = 7,900 miles
– Equatorial = 7,927 miles
– 0.30% difference
• Circumference
– Equatorial circumference = 24,900 miles
• Not perfectly spherical because of:
1. Centrifugal force = ellipsoid shape
– Polar flattening
2. Variations in the Earth’s equigravitational surface =
responsible for irregularities
– Gravitational attraction
– Force of gravity is proportional to the product of two
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masses.
Earth’s Shape
Sphere Spheroid
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Locational Systems
• Artificial reference frames that permit
specific ground locations to be identified
in terms of a grid system.
• Latitudes and Longitudes are the basis of
global locational system.
• Latitude and Longitude systems are
fundamental to:
1. Production and use of maps
2. Organizing time zones (longitude)
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Locational Systems
• Meridians
– Lines of longitude
– Poles are at the end of meridians
– Meridians intersect parallels at right angles
– Labled as East or West of the Prime Meridian
– Prime Meridian: Greenwich, International Date
Line, 180°.
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Locational Systems
• Parallels
– Lines of latitude
– Equator designated as 0°, other lines are
located parallel to the equator.
– Equator = great circle.
– Labled as North or South of the equator.
• North pole = 90°N
• South pole = 90°S
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Latitude Longitude
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Locational Systems
• Graticule
– Network of lines of latitude and longitude
– Characteristics
• Parallels
– 0-90 degrees in the N and S hemisphere
– Equally spaced between the Equator and poles.
– Distance between parallels is invariable.
• Meridians
– 0-180 degrees in the E and W hemisphere
– Spaced farthest apart at Equator and converge at poles
– Distance between meridian is variable depending on latitude.
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Standardizing Map Accuracy
• Latitude Standardization
– Polaris
• Longitude Standardization
– Every hour, the sun passes over 15
degrees of longitude
• 24 hrs / 360°= 1 hr / 15 °
• Geodetic Datums
– Geodesy = science of the Earth’s shape
– Geodetic Datum
• Used as a reference plane that permits us to
standardize horizontal and vertical positions
for points over a very wide area.
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Time Zone
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Geodetic Datum
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Geodetic Control Surveys
• Provide overall framework for maps
• Take into account the Earth’s curvature
• Deflection of the vertical
– Accuracy of observations of the sun and stars is
dependent on the determination of the vertical to the
horizon.
– Due to variations to the Earth’s density.
• Control Network
– Baseline
– Determined from astronomical observations
– Used to determine other locations
– At some locations, geodetic monuments are
established. 15
