Module-3
SQL
Mr. Pradeep N. Surasura
Dept. of C.S.E.,
K.L.E.I.T., Hubballi.
Constraints as Assertions
• General constraints: constraints that do
not fit in the basic SQL categories
(presented in chapter 8)
• Mechanism: CREAT ASSERTION
– components include: a constraint name,
followed by CHECK, followed by a condition
Assertions: An Example
• “The salary of an employee must not be
greater than the salary of the manager of the
department that the employee works for’’
CREAT ASSERTION SALARY_CONSTRAINT
CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE M, DEPARTMENT D
WHERE [Link] > [Link] AND
[Link]=[Link] AND [Link]=[Link]))
Using General Assertions
• Specify a query that violates the condition;
include inside a NOT EXISTS clause
• Query result must be empty
– if the query result is not empty, the assertion
has been violated
SQL Triggers
• Objective: to monitor a database and take
action when a condition occurs
• Triggers are expressed in a syntax similar to
assertions and include the following:
– event (e.g., an update operation)
– condition
– action (to be taken when the condition is
satisfied)
SQL Triggers: An Example
• A trigger to compare an employee’s salary to his/her
supervisor during insert or update operations:
CREATE TRIGGER INFORM_SUPERVISOR
BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OF
SALARY, SUPERVISOR_SSN ON EMPLOYEE
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN
([Link]> (SELECT SALARY FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE SSN=NEW.SUPERVISOR_SSN))
INFORM_SUPERVISOR (NEW.SUPERVISOR_SSN,[Link];
Views in SQL
• A view is a “virtual” table that is derived
from other tables
• Allows for limited update operations (since
the table may not physically be stored)
• Allows full query operations
• A convenience for expressing certain
operations
Specification of Views
• SQL command: CREATE VIEW
– a table (view) name
– a possible list of attribute names (for example,
when arithmetic operations are specified or
when we want the names to be different from
the attributes in the base relations)
– a query to specify the table contents
SQL Views: An Example
• Specify a different WORKS_ON table
CREATE TABLE WORKS_ON_NEW AS
SELECT FNAME, LNAME, PNAME, HOURS
FROM EMPLOYEE, PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBER
GROUP BY PNAME;
Points to Remember
• Constraints as Assertions
• Assertions: An Example
• Using General Assertions
• SQL Triggers
• SQL Triggers: An Example
• Views in SQL
• Specification of Views
• SQL Views: An Example
Using a Virtual Table
• We can specify SQL queries on a newly
create table (view):
SELECT FNAME, LNAME FROM WORKS_ON_NEW
WHERE PNAME=‘Seena’;
• When no longer needed, a view can be
dropped:
DROP WORKS_ON_NEW;
Efficient View Implementation
• Query modification: present the view query
in terms of a query on the underlying base
tables
– disadvantage: inefficient for views defined via
complex queries (especially if additional
queries are to be applied to the view within a
short time period)
Efficient View Implementation
• View materialization: involves physically
creating and keeping a temporary table
– assumption: other queries on the view will
follow
– concerns: maintaining correspondence between
the base table and the view when the base table
is updated
– strategy: incremental update
View Update
• Update on a single view without aggregate
operations: update may map to an update on
the underlying base table
• Views involving joins: an update may map
to an update on the underlying base
relations
– not always possible
Un-updatable Views
• Views defined using groups and aggregate
functions are not updateable
• Views defined on multiple tables using
joins are generally not updateable
• WITH CHECK OPTION: must be added to the
definition of a view if the view is to be
updated
– to allow check for updatability and to plan for
an execution strategy
Database Programming
• Objective: to access a database from an
application program (as opposed to
interactive interfaces)
• Why? An interactive interface is convenient
but not sufficient; a majority of database
operations are made thru application
programs (nowadays thru web applications)
Points to Remember
• Constraints as Assertions
• Assertions: An Example
• Using General Assertions
Database Programming Approaches
• Embedded commands: database commands
are embedded in a general-purpose
programming language
• Library of database functions: available to
the host language for database calls; known
as an API
• A brand new, full-fledged language
(minimizes impedance mismatch)
Impedance Mismatch
• Incompatibilities between a host
programming language and the database
model, e.g.,
– type mismatch and incompatibilities; requires a
new binding for each language
– set vs. record-at-a-time processing
• need special iterators to loop over query results and
manipulate individual values
Steps in Database Programming
1. Client program opens a connection to the
database server
2. Client program submits queries to and/or
updates the database
3. When database access is no longer
needed, client program terminates the
connection
Embedded SQL
• Most SQL statements can be embedded in a
general-purpose host programming
language such as COBOL, C, Java
• An embedded SQL statement is
distinguished from the host language
statements by EXEC SQL and a matching
END-EXEC (or semicolon)
– shared variables (used in both languages)
usually prefixed with a colon (:) in SQL
Example: Variable Declaration
in Language C
• Variables inside DECLARE are shared and can appear
(while prefixed by a colon) in SQL statements
• SQLCODE is used to communicate errors/exceptions
between the database and the program
int loop;
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
varchar dname[16], fname[16], …;
char ssn[10], bdate[11], …;
int dno, dnumber, SQLCODE, …;
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
SQL Commands for
Connecting to a Database
• Connection (multiple connections are
possible but only one is active)
CONNECT TO server-name AS connection-name
AUTHORIZATION user-account-info;
• Change from an active connection to
another one
SET CONNECTION connection-name;
• Disconnection
DISCONNECT connection-name;
Embedded SQL in C
Programming Examples
loop = 1;
while (loop) {
prompt (“Enter SSN: “, ssn);
EXEC SQL
select FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS, SALARY
into :fname, :lname, :address, :salary
from EMPLOYEE where SSN == :ssn;
if (SQLCODE == 0) printf(fname, …);
else printf(“SSN does not exist: “, ssn);
prompt(“More SSN? (1=yes, 0=no): “, loop);
END-EXEC
}
Embedded SQL in C
Programming Examples
• A cursor (iterator) is needed to process
multiple tuples
• FETCH commands move the cursor to the
next tuple
• CLOSE CURSOR indicates that the
processing of query results has been
completed
Points to Remember
• Database Programming Approaches
• Impedance Mismatch
• Steps in Database Programming
• Embedded SQL
• Example: Variable Declaration in Language C
• SQL Commands for Connecting to a Database
• Embedded SQL in C Programming Examples
Dynamic SQL
• Objective: executing new (not previously compiled)
SQL statements at run-time
– a program accepts SQL statements from the keyboard at
run-time
– a point-and-click operation translates to certain SQL
query
• Dynamic update is relatively simple; dynamic
query can be complex
– because the type and number of retrieved attributes are
unknown at compile time
Dynamic SQL: An Example
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
varchar sqlupdatestring[256];
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
…
prompt (“Enter update command:“,
sqlupdatestring);
EXEC SQL PREPARE sqlcommand
FROM :sqlupdatestring;
EXEC SQL EXECUTE sqlcommand;
Embedded SQL in Java
• SQLJ: a standard for embedding SQL in
Java
• An SQLJ translator converts SQL
statements into Java (to be executed thru the
JDBC interface)
• Certain classes, e.g., [Link] have to be
imported
Java Database Connectivity
• JDBC: SQL connection function calls for
Java programming
• A Java program with JDBC functions can
access any relational DBMS that has a
JDBC driver
• JDBC allows a program to connect to
several databases (known as data sources)
Steps in JDBC Database Access
1. Import JDBC library ([Link].*)
2. Load JDBC driver:
[Link](“[Link]”)
3. Define appropriate variables
4. Create a connect object (via getConnection)
5. Create a statement object from the
Statement class:
1. PreparedStatment
2. CallableStatement
Steps in JDBC Database Access
(continued)
6. Identify statement parameters (to be
designated by question marks)
7. Bound parameters to program variables
8. Execute SQL statement (referenced by an
object) via JDBC’s executeQuery
9. Process query results (returned in an object
of type ResultSet)
– ResultSet is a 2-dimentional table
Embedded SQL in Java:
An Example
ssn = readEntry(“Enter a SSN: “);
try {
#sql{select FNAME< LNAME, ADDRESS, SALARY
into :fname, :lname, :address, :salary
from EMPLOYEE where SSN = :ssn};
}
catch (SQLException se) {
[Link](“SSN does not exist: “,+ssn);
return;
}
[Link](fname+“ “+lname+… );
Multiple Tuples in SQLJ
• SQLJ supports two types of iterators:
– named iterator: associated with a query result
– positional iterator: lists only attribute types in a
query result
• A FETCH operation retrieves the next tuple in
a query result:
fetch iterator-variable into program-variable
Database Programming with Functional Calls
• Embedded SQL provides static database
programming
• API: dynamic database programming with a
library of functions
– advantage: no preprocessor needed (thus more
flexible)
– drawback: SQL syntax checks to be done at
run-time
SQL Call Level Interface
• A part of the SQL standard
• Provides easy access to several databases
within the same program
• Certain libraries (e.g., sqlcli.h for C)
have to be installed and available
• SQL statements are dynamically created
and passed as string parameters in the calls
Components of SQL/CLI
• Environment record: keeps track of
database connections
• Connection record: keep tracks of info
needed for a particular connection
• Statement record: keeps track of info
needed for one SQL statement
• Description record: keeps track of tuples
Points to Remember
• Dynamic SQL
• Dynamic SQL: An Example
• Embedded SQL in Java
• Java Database Connectivity
• Steps in JDBC Database Access
• Embedded SQL in Java: An Example
• Multiple Tuples in SQLJ
• Database Programming with Functional Calls
• SQL Call Level Interface and its components
Steps in C and SQL/CLI Programming
1. Load SQL/CLI libraries
2. Declare record handle variables for the above
components (called: SQLHSTMT, SQLHDBC,
SQLHENV, SQLHDEC)
3. Set up an environment record using
SQLAllocHandle
4. Set up a connection record using SQLAllocHandle
5. Set up a statement record using SQLAllocHandle
Steps in C and SQL/CLI Programming
(continued)
6. Prepare a statement using SQL/CLI
function SQLPrepare
7. Bound parameters to program variables
8. Execute SQL statement via SQLExecute
9. Bound columns in a query to a C variable
via SQLBindCol
10. Use SQLFetch to retrieve column values
into C variables
Database Stored Procedures
• Persistent procedures/functions (modules) are
stored locally and executed by the database server
(as opposed to execution by clients)
• Advantages:
– if the procedure is needed by many applications, it can
be invoked by any of them (thus reduce duplications)
– execution by the server reduces communication costs
– enhance the modeling power of views
Stored Procedure Constructs
• A stored procedure
CREATE PROCEDURE procedure-name (params)
local-declarations
procedure-body;
• A stored function
CREATE FUNCTION fun-name (params) RETRUNS return-type
local-declarations
function-body;
• Calling a procedure or function
CALL procedure-name/fun-name (arguments);
SQL Persistent Stored Modules
• SQL/PSM: part of the SQL standard for
writing persistent stored modules
• SQL + stored procedures/functions +
additional programming constructs
– e.g., branching and looping statements
– enhance the power of SQL
SQL/PSM: An Example
CREATE FUNCTION DEPT_SIZE (IN deptno INTEGER)
RETURNS VARCHAR[7]
DECLARE TOT_EMPS INTEGER;
SELECT COUNT (*) INTO TOT_EMPS
FROM SELECT EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO = deptno;
IF TOT_EMPS > 100 THEN RETURN “HUGE”
ELSEIF TOT_EMPS > 50 THEN RETURN “LARGE”
ELSEIF TOT_EMPS > 30 THEN RETURN “MEDIUM”
ELSE RETURN “SMALL”
ENDIF;
Points to Remember
Steps in C and SQL/CLI Programming
Database Stored Procedures
Stored Procedure Constructs
SQL Persistent Stored Modules
SQL/PSM: An Example
End of Module 3
