Lecture-3,4

Digital Signal Processing

Md. Rakibul Islam

Lecturer, Dept. of CSE
Varendra University
 Today’s Topics
• Concepts of Frequency in Analog and Discrete
signal
 Analog and Discrete signal
Analog Signal:
 An analog signal is a continuous waveform that varies smoothly over
time.
 It can take any value within a given range, and the information it carries
is represented by the amplitude of the signal at any given point in time.
 Common examples of analog signals include electrical voltage,
current, and sound waves.
 Analog signals are susceptible to noise and interference during
transmission, and their quality can degrade over long distances.
Discrete Signal:
 A discrete signal is a type of signal that is represented by a sequence of
distinct values at specific points in time.
 Unlike analog signals, discrete signals do not have a continuous range of
values; instead, they have separate, well-defined levels.
 Examples of discrete signals include digital signals used in
computers, digital audio recordings, and digital video.
 Discrete signals are less susceptible to noise and interference compared
to analog signals, making them more robust in certain applications.
 The Concept of Frequency in Analog Signal

 Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signals (Analog

Signals)
– A simple harmonic oscillation is mathematically described by:
𝑥 ( 𝑡 ) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( Ω 𝑡 + 𝜃 ) − ∞ <𝑡 < ∞
𝑎

Analog signal Phase in rad

Amplitude of the sinusoid Frequency in rad/s

– Instead of , we often use

– Thus,
𝑥 𝑎 ( 𝑡 ) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 𝜋 𝐹𝑡 +𝜃 ) − ∞ <𝑡 < ∞
 The Concept of Frequency in Analog Signal

 The above signal is characterized by the following

properties:
– For every fixed value of the frequency F, xa(t) is periodic, i.e.
xa(t+Tp) = xa(t), where Tp = 1/ F is the fundamental period of the
sinusoidal signal.
– Continuous-time sinusoidal signals with distinct (different)
frequencies are themselves distinct.
– Increasing the frequency F results in an increase in the rate of
oscillation of the signal
 The Concept of Frequency in Discrete Signal

 Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals (Digital Signals)

– A discrete-time sinusoidal signal may be expressed as :
𝑥 ( 𝑛 ) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝜔 𝑛+ 𝜃 ) − ∞ <𝑛< ∞
Discrete signal Phase in rad

Amplitude of the sinusoid Frequency in rad/sample

– where n is an integer variable, called the sample number

– Instead of , we often use

– Thus,
𝑥 ( 𝑛 ) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 𝜋 𝑓𝑛+ 𝜃 ) − ∞< 𝑛< ∞
 The Concept of Frequency in Discrete Signal

𝑥 ( 𝑛 ) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝜔 𝑛+ 𝜃 ) − ∞ <𝑛< ∞

• Example:
– Consider the above signal with rads/sample ( and phase
 The Concept of Frequency in Discrete Signal
𝑥 ( 𝑛 ) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 𝜋 𝑓𝑛+ 𝜃 ) − ∞< 𝑛< ∞

 Properties:
 A discrete-time sinusoid is periodic only if its frequency f is a rational
number; i.e., x(n+N) = x(n). Thus,

 The above relation is true if and only if there exist an integer k

such that
i.e., ;
Then the fundamental period of the sinusoid is equal to N
 Discrete-time sinusoids whose frequencies are separated by an integer
multiple of 2 are identical.

 The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete-time sinusoid is attained when

( =  (or ( = -) or, equivalently, f = 1/2 (or f = -1/2).
The Concept of Frequency in Discrete Signal

0 = 2
 Some Problems and Solutions
Q-1: Draw 1Hz, 2Hz and 4Hz Signals
 Some Problems
• Q-2: Determine whether or not each of the
following signals is periodic. In case a signal is
periodic, specify its fundamental period.
(a) xa(t) = 3 cos(5t +  /6)
(b) x(n) = 3 cos(5n +  /6)
(c) x(n) = cos(n/8) cos(n/8)
(d) x(n) = cos(n/2) - sin(n/8) + 3cos(n/4 +  /3)
For Discrete Signal:
For Analog Signal:

Then the fundamental period of the

sinusoid is equal to N
Solution

16
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
 Most of the signal are analog such as:
 Speech, biological signals, seismic signals, radar signals, sonar signals, and various communications
signals such as audio and video signals.
 To process analog signals by digital means, first it is necessary to convert them into
digital form.
 This procedure is called analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion, and the corresponding
devices are called A/D converters (ADCs).
 Basic parts of A/D converter
 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
 Sampling of Analog Signal:
 The conversion of a continuous-
time (analog) signal into a discrete-
time signal.
 By taking "samples" of the
continuous-time signal at discrete-
time instants.
 Taking a sample of analog signal
xa(t) at every T seconds (sampling
interval or sampling period)
x(n) = xa(nT), -∞ < n < ∞
 We can write, 1/T = Fs
 Fs is known as the sampling rate
(samples per second) or the sampling
frequency (hertz)
 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion
 Relationship between the time variables t and n of continuous-time and discrete-time signals:
 These variables are linearly related through the sampling period T or, Fs = 1/T
t = nT = n / Fs
 As a consequence, there exists a relationship between the frequency variable F for analog
signals and the frequency variable f for discrete-time signals.
 To establish this relationship,

which, when sampled periodically at a rate Fs = 1 / T samples per second, yields

𝑥 𝑎 ( 𝑛𝑇 )=𝑥 ( 𝑛 )= 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 𝜋 𝐹𝑛𝑇 + 𝜃 ) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠

 Again, we know that,
( 2 𝜋 𝑛𝐹
𝐹𝑠 )
+ 𝜃 (1)

𝑥 ( 𝑛 ) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 𝜋 𝑓𝑛+ 𝜃 ) ( 2)
𝐹
 Thus, from (1) and (2), we can write: 𝑓=
𝐹𝑠
 Therefore f is a relative or normalized frequency.
 We can use f to determine the frequency F in hertz only if the sampling frequency Fs is
known. (What will be the rate of Fs?)
 We know that, -1/2 < f < 1/2. Thus, -Fs/2 ≤ F ≤ Fs/2. Thus, Fmax ≤ Fs/2
 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion

• Any analog signal can be represented as a sum of sinusoids of

different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases, that is,
𝑁
𝑥 𝑎 ( 𝑡 ) =∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 𝜋 𝐹 𝑖 𝑡 +𝜃𝑖 )
𝑖=1

• Thus, there is a frequency in above signal known as Fmax.

• To avoid the ambiguities resulting from aliasing, we must select the
sampling rate to be sufficiently high. Thus, Fmax ≤ Fs / 2 or Fs > 2Fmax
Sampling Theorem:
 If the highest frequency contained in an analog signal xa(t) is Fmax
= B and the signal is sampled at a rate Fs > 2Fmax  2B, then xa(t)
can be exactly recovered from its sample values using the
interpolation function.
 The sampling rate F = 2B = 2F is called the Nyquist rate.
 Quiz-1
• Q-1: Consider the analog signal

What is the Nyquist rate for this signal?

• Solution:
The frequencies present in the signal above are
F1 =25 Hz, F2 = 150 Hz, F3 = 50Hz
Thus Fmax = 150 Hz , since,
Fs > 2Fmax = 300 Hz
The Nyquist rate is FN = 2Fmax .
Hence, FN = 300 Hz
 Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals

• The process of converting a discrete-time continuous-

amplitude signal into a digital signal by expressing each
sample value as a finite (instead of an infinite) number of
digits is called quantization.
• The error introduced in representing the continuous-
valued signal by a finite set of discrete value levels is
called quantization error or quantization noise.
• We denote the quantizer operation on the samples x(n) as
Q[x(n)] and let xq(n) denote the sequence of quantized
samples at the output of the quantizer. Hence

• Then the quantization error is a sequence eq(n) defined as:

 Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signals

• Consider the following discrete-time signal (Fig(a)):

Fig(b) illustrates the quantization process.

 Quantization Error
• Quantization error is illustrated by the following Table:

• If xmin and xmax represent the minimum and maximum values of x(n) and L is the number
of quantization levels. The range xmax – xmin is called the dynamic range of the signal.
• Quantization step size is defined: 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆=
𝐿− 1
Sampling and Quantization of Sinusoidal Signal
 Coding of Quantized Samples
• The coding process in an A/D converter assigns a
unique binary number to each quantization level.
• If we have L levels we need at least L different
binary numbers (codes).
• With a word length of b bits we can create 2b
different binary numbers.
• Hence, we have 2b  L, or equivalently, b 
log2L.
• Thus the number of bits required in the coder is the
smallest integer greater than or equal to log 2 L.
Coding of Quantized Samples

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 Next Class
 Discrete-Time Signals

 Elementary Discrete-Time Signals

 Classification of Discrete-Time Signals

 Acknowledgement
Professor Dr. Dipankar Das
Department of ICE, RU