Chapter One

Introduction to Data Communication

and Networking

Data Communication and Computer

Networks
(_)
Outlines
Communication Basics

Model for data communication

Protocols and architectures used in data communication

OSI and TCP/IP

Introduction to network devices (switch, hub, router…)

2
Introduction
The term telecommunication means communication at a distance.

The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is

agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data.

Data communications are the exchange of data between two

devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable.

3
 Communication Basics
 Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some

form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

It includes :

 Writing and talking

 Nonverbal communication (such as facial expressions, body language or gestures)

 Visual communication (the use of images or pictures such as

painting, photography, video or film)
 Electronic Communication such as telephone calls, electronic mail,
cable television, satellite broadcasts.

 For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a

communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment)

and software (programs).
4
 Definitions
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed
upon by the parties creating and using the data.

Signal: the electrical wave that is used to represent the data.

It Can be analog or digital signal

Data communications (Transmission) are the exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable or
wireless media using appropriate signal.

Network is a system in which a number of independent computers are linked

together to share data and peripherals, such as hard disks and printers (more in
the next chapters)

5
A Network: A group of devices that can
communicate with each other over links.
It’s a connection between two or more devices.
Which is connected by a communication links.

A node can be computer, printer or any

other devices which is
capable of sending and receiving
information at each other.
Each device is called a host.
Each host has a unique address.

6
Components of a data communication system
1. protocol
2. Message
3. Medium
4. Sender
5. Receiver

7
Five components of data communication
1. Message: is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender: is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver: is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,

workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium: is the physical path by which a message travels from

sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiberoptic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol: is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol,
two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person
speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
8

Japanese.
 Serial vs. parallel communications
In serial communications
A single bit will be transferred at a time using the
communication channel

Bits will be reassembled at the destination

Mostly used by computer peripherals like printers,

In parallel communications
Multiple bits (eg. Eight bits) will be transferred
at a time
Needs multiple (parallel) communication
channels

9
Contd.

10
Data Representation Techniques
The type of data to be transmitted can be in the form of text, audio,

and video in the form of electrical signal, radio, laser, or other

radiated energy source.

Data can be analog or digital

The term analog data refers to information that is continuous;

digital data refers to information that has discrete states.

Example: analog clock (with second, minute and hour hands)

and digital clock

11
 Analog and digital signals

An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of

time.

As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and

includes an infinite number of values along its path.

A digital signal, on the other hand, can have only a limited number of

defined values.

Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.

12
 Analog Signals
 Are Continuous wave that carries information by altering the

characteristics of waves.

 Analogue means that the original information is retransmitted to

the receiver/listener without any manipulation.

 Here the signal can take on any value (within the limits set by
the

recording equipment and the transmitter).

 It measures rather than counts

 For instance, Voice and all sounds are analog, traveling to human

ears in the forms of waves.

13
 Contd.

 Radio, telephone and recording equipment historically have been analog, but
they are beginning to change –due to large to computers to the other types
of signals-digitals

 The disadvantage of analogue signals is that any 'noise', interference,

added to the signal at any point cannot be removed from the audio signal
and this degrades the audio quality of the signal or causes 'hiss'.
14
 Digital Signals
 are a discrete series of pulses - either high or low - on or off -

sometimes expressed as binary code 1s and 0s.

 It counts but not measures

 Discrete pluses of data transmission rather than continues wave

 More prevalent in computer based devices

 Flashing light and telegraph message are traditional examples of

on-off pluses, although not in binary code.

15
 Contd.
The advantage of digital signals is that

1. they are much less likely to be degraded by interference (noise).

2. also it is possible to send a lot more information digitally (e.g.

more television channels) than using analogue technology.
3. They can be transmitted effectively along fibre optic cables. (on -
light signal, off - no light signal) and these are cheaper to
manufacture than copper wiring and can cope with multiple
signals without interference between them.
4. They can be sent directly to computers which use digital systems
themselves.

16
 Contd.

 The signals from a satellite are digital. They use a system called

'packet switching' which is the same as used in computer networks

and for the internet. This system is particularly effective for

dealing with noise elimination.

17
 Contd.
Which of the following signals are Analog and which are Digital?

 Volume control on a radio

 Traffic lights

 Motor bike c

 Water tap

 Dimmer switch

 Light switch

In Music on a CD

 Music on a tape 1
8
 Modes of data transmission

There are 3 different transmission modes characterized according to

the direction of the exchanges:

1. A simplex connection is a connection in which the data flows in

only one direction, from the transmitter to the receiver.

 This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to

flow in both directions (for example, from your

computer to the printer or from the mouse to your

computer...).

1
9
 Contd.

2. A half-duplex connection (sometimes called an alternating connection or semi-

duplex) is a connection in which the data flows in one direction or the other, but not

both at the same time.

 With this type of connection, each end of the connection transmits in turn.

 This type of connection makes it possible to have bidirectional communications

using the full capacity of the line.

 In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by

whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.

 Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

 The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication

in both directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be

utilized for each direction. 2

0
Contd.

3. Full-Duplex: In full-duplex mode (also called duplex),

both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously

 The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street

with

traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.

 In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction

share the capacity of the link: with signals going

in the other direction.

2
1
 Contd.
 This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two
physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other
for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between
signals travelling in both directions.
 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line,
both can talk and listen at the same time.
 The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions
is required all the time.
 The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the
two directions.

OF-FTI-ALL - Issu
2
18 No e
2
1
Contd.

23
 Signal Encoding techniques
 Digital data:- information that has discrete states

 Analog Data:- information that is continuous

 Digital Signal:- can have only a limited number of defined values.

 Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.

 Analog signal:- has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time.

 As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and

includes an infinite number of values along its path.

24
Contd.

25
 Assignment
 Describe the following digital signal encoding formats
(which

format is used by Ethernet?)

1. Non return-to-Zero-Level (NRZ-L)

2. Non return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)

3. Bipolar-AMI

4. Pseudoternary

5. Manchester

6. Differential Manchester
26
27
 DIGITAL DATA, ANALOG SIGNALS

 The most familiar use of this transformation is for transmitting

digital data through the public telephone network.

 The telephone network was designed to receive, switch, and

transmit analog signals in the voice- voice frequency range of

about 300 to 3400 Hz.

 digital devices are attached to the network via a modem

(modulator-demodulator), which converts digital data to analog

signals, and vice versa.

28
Digital Data to Analog Signal Encoding
Techniques
 Modulation involves operation on one or more of three
the
characteristics of a carrier signal: amplitude, frequency, and phase.

 Accordingly, there are three basic encoding or modulation

techniques for transforming digital data into analog signals

1. Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)

2. Frequency-shift keying (FSK)

3. Phase-shift keying

(PSK) Read about these

29

techniques
30
Multiplexing
 In data communication, there might be a need to share a single

media for multiple communication (media/bandwidth sharing) in

order to utilize the available bandwidth wisely to achieve specific

goals.

 Sharing of a single media (fiber, coaxial, microwave,..) is known as

multiplexing.

 Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater

than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can be shared.

31
 The Basic Types of Multiplexing
• There are four basic approaches to multiplexing that each have a set
of variations and implementations
– Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
– Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
– Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
– Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
• TDM and FDM are widely used
• WDM is a form of FDM used for optical fiber
• CDM is an approach used in cell phone mechanisms

3 32
 Contd.
 Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)

transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

 As data and telecommunications use increases, so does traffic.

 In the above figure, there are n inputs to a multiplexer.

The
multiplexer is connected by a single data link to a demultiplexer.
33
 Contd.
 The link is able to carry n separate channels of data.
 The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from the n
input lines and transmits over a higher capacity data link.
 The demultiplexer accepts the multiplexed data stream,
separates (demultiplexes) the data according to channel, and
delivers them to the appropriate output lines.
 There are three types of Multiplexing

Multiplexing

FREQUENCY- DIVISON TIME – DIVISON STISTICAL

MULTIPLEXING MULTIPLEXING MULTIPLEXING
34
 Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
 FDM is a signal transmission technology in which multiple signals

can simultaneously be transmitted over the same line or channel.

 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) can be used in both

wired and wireless networking for transmitting large amounts of

data at high speeds.

 FDM is the simplest and oldest form of multiplexing in wireless

networking technology.

 Frequency division multiplexing involves simultaneously

transmitting multiple signals on different

35
frequencies.
 Contd.
 These different frequencies, called channels, non-
share

overlapping portions of the total frequency band being used.

 Signals from different data sources are fed into a multiplexer that

modulates each signal and transmits them at different frequencies.

 These signals are then transmitted over the wire or through

wireless communication and are separated at the destination into

individual data signals using a demultiplexer.

36
FD Multiplexing Vs. FD
Demultiplexing Example

37
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
 A multiplexing method for transmitting multiple data streams in a

single communication path.

 In TDM, the data from different input channels is divided

into fixed-length segments and then combined in round-robin

fashion into a single output data stream, which can then be

transmitted over a single channel transmission system and

demultiplexed at the destination location.

 The segments can be created by the multiplexer itself or can

be inherent in the input channel signals, such as fixed-length frames. 38

 Contd.
 TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several
low-
rate digital channels into one high-rate one.

 One weakness in TDM is that if an input channel does not have

anything important to carry for a time, empty segments are inserted

into the output stream anyway. For example, if channel A is not
transmitting data, one-third of the output channel is not being used.
You can overcome this weakness by using a more sophisticated
multiplexing technique called statistical multiplexing. 3
9
 Contd.
 For example, if input streams A, B, and C are divided into segments as
shown here:
A: A1, A2, A3,...
B: B1, B2, B3,...
C: C1, C2, C3,...
the output stream will look like this:
MUX(ABC) A1, B1, C1, A2, B2, C2, A3, B3, C3,...

4
0
 Statistical Multiplexing
 It is a multiplexing technique that allows information from

a number of channels to be combined for transmission over

a single channel.

 Statistical multiplexing dynamically allocates bandwidth

to each channel on an as-needed basis. This is in

contrast to time-division multiplexing (TDM) techniques,
in which quiet devices use up a portion of the
multiplexed data stream, filling it with empty packets.
Statistical multiplexing allocates bandwidth only to
channels that are currently transmitting. It packages the
data from the active channels into packets and
dynamically
 feeds themis into
Statistical multiplexing the output
sometimes channel,
referred to as usually
onstatistical
a FIFO time-
(first in, first out) basis, but it’s also able to 4
1
Data Transmission : Error Detection
and Correction
 Errors in transmitted data can occur for a variety of
reasons.

1. Some errors are due to equipment failure.

2. Some errors are due dispersion in optical fibers (i.e.

light pulses spread out).

3. Some errors are due to attenuation (loss of signal

power over a line).

4. Most errors are due to thermal noise that occurs

naturally on
the line.

42
 Dealing with Equipment Failure
 The more pieces of equipment that your signal needs to pass through, the

more likely it is that you’ll have a failure.

Transmitter Modem Switch Switch Modem Receiver

 Fewer intermediate devices or more reliable devices will

reduce the

probability of failure.

 Redundant devices can also reduce the probability of failure by

taking over from other devices when they fail. 43

Dispersion
 Dispersion mainly occurs in optical fibers.

 A light pulse is made of billions of photons.

 Each photon follows a slightly different path as it

bounces

along the optical fiber.

 A crisp light pulse will eventually spread out and overlap with

other pulses.

44
Attenuation

 Attenuation is the reduction in the power of a

signal as it is

transmitted.

 Attenuation is a problem because the signal

eventually loses so much power that it becomes

difficult to distinguish it from the thermal noise in the

background

45
Dealing With Errors

 We need to build systems that are resilient to errors in data.

 There is no way to guarantee that all bits will be sent uncorrupted.

 One way to cope with this is to detect errors and request that

corrupted data should be retransmitted.

 Detecting errors cannot be guaranteed either.

 We can at least make it extremely unlikely that errors will go

undetected.

46
Errors in Data

 Data is sent in the form of binary numbers.

 The binary numbers consist bites - which are either

0 or 1.

 There are four possible ways that noise can affect

a bit:

If a bit is 0, the noise can affect it so it stays 0 – no

error If a bit is 0, the noise can change it to 1- error

If a bit is 1, the noise can affect it so it stays 1 - no

error if a bit is 1, the noise can change it to 0- error

47
 Pure Noise

 If the noise is overwhelming then (with some surprise

perhaps)

we will still receive half the bits correctly.

 The problem is that there is no way of telling which

bits are correct and which bits are not.

 The data is no better than if we generated the bits

randomly.

48
Detecting Errors
 Usually, noise levels are fairly low and most of the bits are received correctly

by the receiver.

 The question is, how can the receiver know when an error has occurred?

 Because errors occur randomly, there is no way of knowing with complete

certainty if the data is correct.

 The best we can do is detect most errors.

 We could try sending the data twice and comparing the two transmissions to see

where the errors are.

 This is inefficient, particularly if all we want to know if there is an error in a

particular block of data.

 Even when we detect an error, the next question is: what to do about it?

49
Parity Checking (Vertical Redundancy
Check (VRC))

 One of the most common ways of checking to see if an error occurs is

to count the bits in a character to see if there is an even or odd

number.

 Before transmission, an extra bit (parity bit) is appended to the

character to force the number of bits to be even (or odd).

 If the received character does not have an even (or odd) number of bits

then an error must have occurred.

 Both the sender and receiver must know which form of parity to use.
50
Contd.

A character such as 0110001 would be

transmitted as:
Odd Parity: 01100010 (There are an odd number of 1s)
Even Parity: 01100011 (There are an even number of 1s)

Parity checking will detect a single error in a character

but not double errors.

7 bits of data 8 bits including parity

(count of 1 bits) Even odd

0000000 (0) 00000000 (0) 10000000 (1)

1010001 (3) 11010001 (4) 01010001 (3)
1101001 (4) 01101001 (4) 11101001 (5)
1111111 (7) 11111111 (8) 01111111 (7)

51
Hamming Distance
 The Hamming distance between two bit patterns is the number

of dissimilar bits.

 It measures the minimum number of substitutions required to

change one string into the other, or the number of errors

that transformed one string into the other.

 For example, the Hamming distance between 01000001 (‘A’)

and 01000011 (‘C’) is 1 because there is only one

dissimilar bit.

 One error in the wrong place can turn an ‘A’ into a ‘C’.

52
 Hamming Distance

 The Hamming distance between 01000001 (‘A’) and

01000010

(‘B’) is 2 because there are two dissimilar bits.

 It would take two errors in the wrong place to turn an ‘A’ into a ‘B’.

 Adding a parity bit ensures that there is at least a Hamming

distance

of 2 between any two code words.

53
Checksum
Another simple way of checking if there has been an error in a block
of data is to find a checksum.

Imagine we send the data 121, 17, 29 and 47. Adding these
numbers
up, we get 214.

We actually send 121,17,29,47 and 214.

The receiver can total up the first numbers and compare it to the last
one.

A difference means an error has occurred.

54
 Contd.

Typically pairs of bytes are joined to make 16 bit numbers. It is these

16 bit numbers that are totaled to make the checksum.

If the checksum becomes larger than 65535 (the largest possible 16

bit number) then the carried bits are discarded.

Checksums are common but not particularly good at catching errors.

Later errors can easily hide earlier ones.

55
 Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC)

A far more effective way of detecting errors in a block of data is to

use a Cyclic Redundancy Code.

In CRC, a number is mathematically calculated for a packet by its

source computer, and then recalculated by the destination computer.

If the original and recalculated versions at the destination computer

differ, the packet is corrupt and needs to be resent or ignored.

56
 Contd.
The mathematical procedure for performing a CRC is specified by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and involves applying
a 16-bit polynomial to the data being transmitted by the packet for
packets of 4 KB of data or less, or a 32-bit polynomial for packets
larger than 4 KB.

The results of this calculation are appended to the packet as a trailer.

The receiving station applies the same polynomial to the data and
compares the results to the trailer appended to the packet.
Implementations of Ethernet use 32-bit polynomials to calculate their
CRC.

57
 Model for data communication

Source

•Generates data to be transmitted

Transmitter

•Converts data into transmittable signals

Transmission System

•Carries data
58
Receiver
•Converts received signal into suitable data
form
Destination
•Takes incoming data

59
Simplified Data Communications Model
 Protocols and architectures used in data
communication OSI and TCP/IP

A protocol is a set of rules or procedures for transmitting data

between electronic devices, such as computers.
it a set of mutually accepted and implemented rules at both
ends of the communications channel for the proper exchange of
information.
It is a digital language through which we communicate with
others on the Internet.

61
Why Data Communication Protocols
and Standards are required?

In the early 1980s, companies began to implement their

proprietary (private) network. Every company developed
its own networking devices & software. So, each network
implemented its own specifications. The result was
incompatible networks (because of the absence of
Standards). Subsequently, the communication between
networks was very difficult. There was a need to develop
networking standards to ensure the Interoperability
between Networks.

62
Standardized protocol architecture:
It standardizes network devices and software:
Ensures compatibility (interoperability) between devices
from different vendors.
It prevents changes in one layer from affecting the other layers:
Layers are developed quickly.
Accelerates the evolution of networks.
Simplifies the learning process.
Fosters competition because products from different vendors can
work together.
Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from
affecting other layers above and below.
Provides a common language to describe networking functions
and capabilities

63
 Elements of a Protocol
There are three key elements of a protocol:

↘ It means the structure or format of the data.

Syntax

↘ It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.

↘ It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates

Semantics

↘ It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on

the interpretation of each section.

the interpretation.

↘ It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver

Timing

↘ It tells the sender at what rate the data should

to receive the data

be sent to the
receiver to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
64
Rules are defined for each step and process during
communication between two or more computers.
Networks have to follow these rules to successfully
transmit data.
Protocols are needed in every field like society, science &
technology, Data Communication, media and etc.

65
In order for computers to exchange information, there must be a pre-
existing agreement as to how the information will be structured and
how each side will send and receive it.

Without a protocol, a transmitting computer, for example, could be

sending its data in 8-bit packets while the receiving computer might
expect the data in 16-bit packets.

Protocols are established by international or industry wide

organizations.

66
Perhaps the most important computer protocol is OSI
(Open Systems Interconnection), a set of guidelines for
implementing networking communications between
computers.

Among the most important sets of Internet protocols are

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol),
HTTPS (Secure Hypertext Transmission Protocol), SMTP
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and DNS (Domain
Name System).

67
Levels of a Protocol
There are mainly three levels of a protocol, they are as

follows:

Hardware Level: In this level, the protocol enables the

hardware devices to connect and communicate with each

other for various purposes.

Software Level: In the software level, the protocol

enables different software to connect and communicate

with each other to work collaboratively.

68
Application Level: In this level, the protocol enables
the application programs to connect and communicate
with each other for various purposes.

Hence protocols can be implemented at the hardware,

software, and application levels.

69
 Types of Protocols
Protocols can be broadly divided into the following two
types:
Standard Protocols
Proprietary Protocols
• Standard Protocols:

A standard protocol is a
mandated protocol for
all devices.
It supports multiple
devices and acts as a
standard.
Standard protocols
are not vendor-
specific 70
 i.e. they are not specific to a particular company or organization.

They are developed by a group of experts from

different organizations .

These protocols are publicly available, and we need not pay for them.

Some of the examples of Standard Protocols are FTP, DNS, DHCP,

SMTP, TELNET, TFTP, etc.

71
FTP(File transfer protocol): is basically used for transferring
files to different networks.
There may be a mass of files such as text files, multimedia files, etc.
This way of file transfer is quicker than other methods.

SMTP(Simple mail transfer protocol): manages the

transmission and outgoing mail over the internet.

72
Proprietary Protocols:
Proprietary protocols are developed by an individual organization
for their specific devices.

We have to take permission from the organization if we want to

use their protocols.
It is not a standard protocol and it supports only specific
devices. We may have to pay for these protocols.

Some of the examples of Proprietary Protocols are

IMessage, Apple Talk, etc.

73
 Concept of Layered Task

The main objective of a computer network is to be able to

transfer the data from sender to receiver. This task can be
done by breaking it into small sub tasks, each of which
are well defined. Each subtask will have its own process
or processes to do and will take specific inputs and give
specific outputs to the subtask before or after it. In more
technical terms we can call these sub tasks as layers. In
general, every task or job can be done by dividing it into
sub task or layers. Consider the example of sending a
letter where the sender is in City A and receiver is in city
B. The process of sending letter is shown in below figure:

74
 The figure shows
a. Sender, Receiver & Carrier
b. Hierarchy of layers
At the sender site, the activities take place in the following
descending order:
c.Higher Layer: The sender writes the letter along with the
sender and receivers address and put it in an envelope and drop it
in the mailbox.
d. Middle Layer: The letter is picked up by the post man and
delivered to the post office
c.Lower Layer: The letters at the post office are sorted and are
ready to be transported through a carrier.

75
The figure shows

Figure: Concept of Layered Task

During transition the letter may be carried by truck, plane or ship or a

combination of transport modes before it reaches the destination post
office.

76
At the Receiver site, the activities take
place in the following ascending
order:
a.Lower Layer: The carrier delivers the letter to
the destination post office
b.Middle Layer: After sorting, the letter is delivered
to the receiver’s mail box
c. Higher Layer: The receiver picks up the letter,
opens
the envelope and reads it.
Hierarchy of layers: The activities in the entire task are
organized into three layers. Each activity at the sender
or receiver side occurs in a particular order at the
hierarchy.
The important and complex activities are organized
into the Higher Layer and the simpler ones into middle
and lower layer. 77
 OSI and TCP/IP

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocols: are a family of

standards for information exchange.

They consist of a set of rules that should represent a standard for

physical connections, cabling, data formats, transmission models.

These protocols were developed and designed by the International

Organization of Standardization (ISO).

In 1977 the ISO model was introduced, which consisted of seven

different layers.

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Each layer of the ISO model has its own protocols and functions.

The OSI protocol stack was later adapted into the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP)/ internet protocol (IP) stack.

TCP/IP helps you to determine how a specific computer should be

connected to the internet and how you can transmit data between
them.

It helps you to create a virtual network when multiple computer

networks are connected together.

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol.

It is specifically designed as a model to offer highly reliable and

end-to-end byte stream over an unreliable internetwork.
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80
OSI Model Explained

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82
The following are the OSI protocols used in the seven layers of the
OSI Model:

Layer 1, the Physical Layer

This layer deals with the hardware of networks such as cabling.
It defines the mechanical and electrical standards of interface
devices and the types of cables used to transmit digital signals
(e.g. optical fiber, coaxial cable, wireless, etc.).
The major protocols used by this layer include Bluetooth, PON,
OTN, DSL, IEEE.802.11, IEEE.802.3, L431 and TIA 449.

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•Transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next. 84
Layer 2, the Data Link Layer

This layer receives data from the physical layer and

compiles it into a transform form called framing or frame.

The principal purpose of this layer is to detect transfer errors

by adding headers to data packets.

The protocols are used by the Data Link Layer include: ARP,

CSLIP, HDLC, IEEE.802.3, PPP, X-25, SLIP, ATM, SDLS

and PLIP.

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•It is responsible for node-to-node delivery of data.

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Layer 3, the Network Layer

This is the most important layer of the OSI model, which performs

real time processing and transfers data from nodes to nodes.

Routers and switches are the devices used for this layer that

connects the notes in the network to transmit and control data

flow.

The network layer assists the following protocols:

Internet Protocol (IPv4), Internet Protocol (IPv6), IPX, AppleTalk,
ICMP, IPSec and IGMP.

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Layer 4, the Transport Layer
The transport layer works on two determined communication

modes: Connection oriented and connectionless.

This layer transmits data from source to destination node.

It uses the most important protocols of OSI protocol family,

which are: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User

Datagram Protocol (UDP), SPX, Datagram Congestion

Control Protocol (DCCP) and Stream Control Transmission

Protocol (SCTP).
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90
Layer 5, the Session Layer

The session layer creates a session between the source

and the destination nodes and terminates sessions

on of the communication process.

completion

The protocols used are: PPTP, L2TP and

SAP, NetBIOS.

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Layer 6, the Presentation Layer

The functions of encryption and decryption are defined on

this layer.

It ensures that data is transferred in standardized formats by

converting data formats into a format readable by the

application layer.

The following are the presentation layer protocols: XDR,

TLS, SSL and MIME.

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94
Layer 7, the Application Layer
This layer works at the user end to interact with user
applications.
QoS (quality of service), file transfer and email are the
major popular services of the application layer.
A few examples of application layer protocols are the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name
System (DNS).
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96
Difference between TCP/IP and OSI
Model

Here are some important differences between the

OSI and TCP/IP model:

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98
Introduction to network devices
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links.

A node can be a computer, printer or any other device

capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.

A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber or any medium

which can transport a signal carrying information.

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Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that
are required for communication and interaction between hardware on a
computer network.

Types of network devices

The common network device are:

Hub
Switch
Router
Bridge
Gateway
Modem
Repeater

Access Point 10
0
 Hub

•A Hub is a networking
connector device that aids in
connecting multiple devices to a
single network.
•It is a common connection
•It thata is also
point physical
known as alayer
network
hub.
is network that connects
device a series of
LANs.
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102
 Switch
•A Switch is a networking device that
has the ability to link multiple devices
together on one computer network.
•It uses a data link layer to connect
the devices.
•When it comes to switching, we prefer
the packet switching method to dispatch
the data packet over the web.

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 Router
A router is a device for computer networking devices that helps
in connecting two or more packet-switched networks.
The major role of the router is to perform the two functions.
It supports in handling the traffic between the networks by
dispatching data packets, and permits several devices to use the
same internet connection.

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105
106
Five Categories of Network
Devices

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Introduction to layer two (switch) and layer one (hub) device

Network devices, also known as

networking hardware, are physical devices
that allow hardware on a computer network
to communicate and interact with one
another.

For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge,

Switch,
Routers, Gateway and NIC, etc.

Layer one (hub):

Hub is commonly used to connect 108

It comes under the Physical layer of the OSI
Model (layer-1) which broadcasts the data
coming from the input source to all other
output computer ports connected with it.

There can be no ports in a hub and data is

transmitted
to all these ports connected through a computer.

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As it is not reliable or we can say that it
is not
an intelligent device because it
does not store the information or data
coming from the source as Switch does.

Hub transmits all the data coming

from the source side to all other
computers connected with its port.

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 How Hub Works?
Hub is connected through an electric wire and receives the

data from the source device connected to its port and sends it

to all the other ports.

It doesn’t have any feature of storing and forwarding the

information or doesn’t manage any kind of table as the

switch does.

It simply shares the data from one port to another port

connected to it.

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112
Hence, there a lot of traffic occurs and the performance
becomes very low and sometimes stuck or shut down the
whole network.

It basically uses the star topology method physically in

which all the devices are connected to a central node and if
the central node gets any problem whole network is
disturbed, but it logically acts as a bus topology.

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 Why Hub is a Physical Layer device?
The reason for using a hub as a physical device is that because the hub is
not an intelligent device, it does not store any data in it and doesn’t manage
any table for storing the MAC addresses as the Switch device does.

Hub is connected through a large cable, and just simply forward the data, to
all the devices connected to it.

Two computers cannot send data at the same time, and if they send there
will be collision and hub shutdowns.

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 Types of HUB in Networking

Active Hub

Passive Hub

Intelligent Hub

Active Hub is the hub that requires electricity AC (Alternate Current)

because it continuous generates signals and amplify the signals.

It can monitor the connected devices.

It uses the priority method for sending data, which data should send first.

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Passive hubs are simple message connector to devices, they
are a
simple device which receives the data and transmit to next
device.

Intelligent Hub is the advanced version of active and passive

hubs, if the small networking area wants' to expand into a
large networking area then intelligent hubs are used.

Any problem in the device connected to an intelligent

hub can be
detected easily.

The transmission rate is high, and a speed of 100Mbps

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 Layer two (switch)

Data is typically transported on a physical layer via a layer 2

switch, and errors are checked on each transmitted and
received frame.
The MAC address of each NIC on a network node is required
for data transmission on a layer 2 switch.
LANs that use switches to join segments are called switched
LANs or, in the case of Ethernet networks, switched Ethernet
LANs.
In networks, the switch is the device that filters and forwards
packets between LAN segments.

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A layer 2 switch does not require any configuration and can be used
with any type of network.

However, a layer 2 switch cannot route traffic between different

VLANs.

A VLAN is a virtual LAN.

A VLAN is a logical group of devices that are configured

to
communicate as if they were on the same physical network.

An address learning process is used to identify the address of a device

linked to the network.

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This is important because devices will only communicate
with one another if they have the same hardware addresses.

The forward or filter decision serves as the network’s default

router.

It includes such decisions as sending a packet via the wired

or wireless interfaces, as well as which port a packet should
be routed through.

To avoid looping back on itself, packets must be avoided.

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This feature aids in packet delivery
because it prevents packets from
taking long periods of time to reach
their destination, which can have a
negative impact on performance.

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 Assignment #1(Individual)

1. Discuss on the following network devices;

a) Gateway

b) Router
c) Bridge
d) Modem and

e) Repeater

2. Explain the following protocols: HTTP, SMTP, DHCP,

FTP, Telnet, SNMP, SMPP, POP, DNS, PPTP, SAP, L2TP,
NetBIOS, XDR, TLS, SSL and MIME, Bluetooth, PON,
OTN, DSL, IEEE.802.11, IEEE.802.3, L431 and TIA 449.

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