Methods of
Philosophizing
LESSON 2
OBJECTIVES
• distinguish opinion from truth
• analyze situations through critical
thinking
• realize that the methods of philosophy
lead to rational thinking, wisdom, and
truth; and
• evaluate opinions.
I. Introduction: Methods of
Philosophizing
In the previous lesson, philosophy and its relevance to the student as
well as lifelong learning skills were introduced
A. Phenomenology: On
Consciousness
Phenomenology focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena or
appearances based on what we are conscious of (Johnston 2006). Basically, it
refers to our ideas. In Logical Investigations, Husserl argued against philosophy
as reducible to psychology.
B. Existentialism: On Freedom
Unlike phenomenology, existentialism is not necessarily a philosophical method but more of
an outlook or attitude supported by varied principles centered on shared themes such as:
1. the human condition and/or reaction to that condition;
2. being of persons and the existence of other kinds of things;
3. human freedom, for instance, to imagine and to choose;
4. being conscious;
B. Existentialism: On Freedom
Unlike phenomenology, existentialism is not necessarily a philosophical method but more of
an outlook or attitude supported by varied principles centered on shared themes such as:
5. responsibility for one’s life (Solomon and Higgins 2010). This implies that a person
might not be able to change his or her circumstances, but he or she can change his or
her attitude toward that situation. This was vividly portrayed in the autobiographical
account of Viktor Frankl in his book Man’s Search for Meaning;
6. the implication (and unavoidability) of choice even in the absence of certainty; and
7. the concreteness and subjectivity of life as lived, against abstractions and false
objectifications.
C. Postmodernism: On Cultures
“Postmodernism” rejects the convictions, aspirations, and pretensions of modern Western tradition. Postmodernism
is more of an attitude and a reaction to modernism which is a worldview of order, logic, and authority based on
knowledge (Shields 2012). Postmodernists share these attitudes:
1. truth is beyond the rational to the nonrational elements of human nature, including the
spiritual;
2. realize the limits of reason and objectivism;
3. adhere to a relational, holistic approach;
4. value our existence in the world and in relation to it. In other words, there is no one truth
that is true for all people at all times, but there are several truths that are true and unique for
each person. There is no objective truth;
C. Postmodernism: On Cultures
“Postmodernism” rejects the convictions, aspirations, and pretensions of modern Western tradition. Postmodernism
is more of an attitude and a reaction to modernism which is a worldview of order, logic, and authority based on
knowledge (Shields 2012). Postmodernists share these attitudes:
5. confront issues including genetic engineering which is a direct intervention in the genetic
makeup of humans, sex change operation or removal of testicles and penis, climate, and
poverty; and
6. respect humanism stresses the importance of human dignity, posthumanism aspires to
transcend human nature. Posthumanism advocates the use of science and technology to alter
human condition. Whereas humanism stresses the importance of human dignity,
posthumanism aspires to transcend human nature. Posthuman processes of reproduction,
aging, and death. The posthuman is likened to
D. Analytic Tradition
“Is truth objective?” In his later works, Ludwig Wittgenstein
argued that language cannot objectively describe truth. He
claimed that language is socially conditioned, which means the
meaning of words is created by what people have agreed upon.
For the latter Wittgenstein, there is no objective meaning. We
understand the world solely in terms of our language games, that
is, our linguistic, social constructs. Truth, as we perceive it, is
itself socially constructed. Truth can change depending on what
people have decided it to be.
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in
Reasoning
In the first lesson, logic was discussed as one of the branches of
philosophy. Logic and critical thinking consider these three concepts in
interpreting the meaning of facts:
1. Cultural systems
2. Values
3. Beliefs
Two Parts of an
Argument
Premises – statements that claim to present the evidence or reasons,
for instance, consider: Human cloning is evil.
The statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply is the
conclusion. In this case, the conclusion: Human cloning should never
be allowed.
Two Parts of an
Argument
1.Deductive reasoning draws conclusion from usually one broad
judgment or definition and one more specific assertion, often an
inference.
2. Inductive Inductive reasoning is based on observations in order to
make generalizations. This means from many specific examples and
instances, a person can make a general guess.
Validity and Soundness
of an Argument
Based on the previous example (or syllogism), the deductive argument
is valid. Validity arises from a logical conclusion based on the two
logically constructed premises (Reed 2010).
Strength of an
Argument
Multistage random sampling and surveys are examples of inductive
reasoning. Random sampling, for instance, in selecting provinces first,
then towns, then barangays, is always by probability proportional to
size (pps). Cebu and Pangasinan are provinces most frequently (but
not always) sampled.
Fallacies
A fallacy is a defect in an argument, and to detect it, we examine the content
of the argument, conclusions and premises.
1. Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad misericordiam). A specific kind of appeal to
emotion that is used by exploiting his or her opponent’s feelings of pity or guilt
2. Appeal to ignorance (Argumentum ad ignorantiam). A fallacy following an
assumption that whatever has not been proven false must be true and vice
versa.
3. Equivocation. A fallacy when a term or a particular word is used in the
same context but has a different meaning each time.
Example: a. Human beings have hands; the clock has hands;
b. He is drinking from the pitcher of water; he is a baseball pitcher.
Fallacies
A fallacy is a defect in an argument, and to detect it, we examine the content
of the argument, conclusions and premises.
1. Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad misericordiam). A specific kind of appeal to
emotion that is used by exploiting his or her opponent’s feelings of pity or guilt
2. Appeal to ignorance (Argumentum ad ignorantiam). A fallacy following an
assumption that whatever has not been proven false must be true and vice
versa.
3. Equivocation. A fallacy when a term or a particular word is used in the
same context but has a different meaning each time.
Example: a. Human beings have hands; the clock has hands;
b. He is drinking from the pitcher of water; he is a baseball pitcher.
Fallacies
4. Composition. This infers that something is true of the whole from the fact
that it is true of some part of the whole. The reverse of this fallacy is division.
5. Division. One reasons logically that something true of a thing must also be
true of all or some of its parts.
6. Against the person (Argumentum ad hominem). This fallacy attempts to link
the validity of a premise to a characteristic or credentials of the person
supporting the premise. However, in some instances, questions of personal
conduct, character, and motives among others are legitimate if relevant to the
issue.
7. Appeal to force (Argumentum ad baculum). An argument where strength,
coercion, or the threat of force is a justification for a conclusion.
Fallacies
8. Apeal to the people (argument ad populom). An argument that appeal or
exploits people's vanities, desire for esteem, and anchoring on popularity
9. False cause (Post hoc). Since that event followed this one, that event must
have been caused by this one. This fallacy is also referred to as coincidental
correlation or correlation not causation.
Fallacies
10. Hasty generalization. One commits errors if one reaches an inductive
generalization grounded on inadequate evidence. The fallacy is commonly
based on an expansive conclusion upon the statistics of a survey of a small
group that inadequately represents the whole population.
11. Begging the question (Petitio principii). This is a type of fallacy in which
the proposition to be proven is assumed implicitly or explicitly in the premise.
Debate Discussion
In a debate, arguments are concerned with matters that are
controversial. Sufficient information about issues must be provided to
make the audience aware of the controversy. The topic of the debate
or argument, therefore, must be timely and significant.
IV. Evaluate Opinions
As discussed in the previous sections, critical thinking and logic are
important tools to distinguish facts from opinions. An opinion can be a
belief or judgment that rests on grounds insufficient to produce
complete certainty
