INTRODUCTION TO NERVOUS SYSTEM

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 NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Is an interconnected network of cells, tissues and organs that
allow us to communicate with and react to the environment and
perform life activities.
 is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry
messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to
various parts of the body.
 The master control and communications system of the
body
 We have about 100 billion nerve cells in our brain by adulthood
 The nervous system serves as the chief coordinating
agency.
 Every thought, action, instinct, and emotion reflects
its activity.
 Its cells communicate through electrical signals
– rapid and specific
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– immediate responses.
 The Nervous System Functions
Basic Functions
 It uses its millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes
occurring both inside and outside the body i.e., Sensing the
world through
 Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch
 It processes and interprets the sensory input -Integration
 It dictates a response by activating the effector organs, our
muscles or glands; the response is called motor output.
• Compared to the endocrine system, the nervous system
transmits information very rapidly.

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Cont---

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 Cells of nervous system
• The two types of cells found in the nervous system
are called:
– neurons or nerve cells and neuroglia
• Neurons are nerve cells that send messages
all over your body
• conduct impulses
• responsible for receiving sensory input
from the external world and for sending
motor commands to our muscles

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 Neuroglial cells
• Neuroglia – does not specialize in transmitting or
conducting impulses.
– Instead, they are special types of supporting
connective tissue cells that hold the functioning
neurons together, insulate, nourish, and protect
them
• Are non-neuronal, non-excitable cells that
form a significant component of nervous
 Cont.…

• In the CNS, neuroglia include:

• astrocytes
• oligodendrocytes
• microglia
• ependymal cells
• In PNS:
• Schwann cells (neurolemmocytes)
• satellite cells
 Cont…
Astrocytes
• create supportive framework for neurons
• create “blood-brain barrier”
Oligodendrocytes
• create myelin sheath around axons of neurons in
the CNS.
– Myelinated axons transmit impulses faster than
unmyelinated axons
Microglia
• “brain macrophages”
• phagocytize cellular wastes & pathogens
 Cont…

Ependymal cells
• line ventricles of brain & central canal of spinal cord
• produce, monitor & help to circulate cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF)
Schwann cells
• creates myelin sheath around most axons of PNS

Satellite cells
• support groups of cell bodies of neurons within
ganglia of the PNS
Brain
Nuclei of
Spinal supporting
cord cells

Nuclei of
supporting Cell body
cells of neuron
Cell body
of neuron Neuron
processes
Neuron
processes
Diagram: Nervous Photomicrograph: Neurons (320×)
tissue
 Neurons
• Are structural and functional units of
the nervous system
• Receive and conduct electrochemical impulses to and
from body parts
• Process, transfer, and store information
• Specialized for rapid communication

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 Parts of neurons
• Each neuron consists of three parts:
• Neuron cell body
– Is a main biosynthetic center
– focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal processes
– Contains an axon hillock – cone-shaped area from which
axons arise
• Dendrites
– multiple elongated Typically short and highly branched processes
– transmit impulses to the neuron cell bodies
• Axons
– the process that transmit impulses away from the neuron cell bodies.

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 Structural Classification of Neurons

• Based on projection arise from the cell body neurons Structurally

Classified into three parts
• Multipolar neurons –
– have one axon and many (at least two) dendrites that branch off it
– Most neurons in the body (over 99%) are multipolar.
– Both motor neurons and interneurons are multipolar
• Bipolar neurons
– one axon and one dendrite
– Bipolar neurons are not very common
– found in some of the organs for special senses such as retina,
inner ear, and the region of the nose involved with smell.
• Unipolar neurons –
– have a short single process leaving the cell body
– Sensory neurons are unipolar. 15
Simplified view of the three main types of neurons, according to
their morphological characteristics.
Functional Classification of neurons
• Based on their function neurons classified into three types:
– sensory neurons
– motor neurons and
– inter neurons.
• Sensory neurons:
– also called afferent neurons
– usually unipolar neurons,
– some are bipolar neurons,
– transmit impulses to the spinal cord and brain from all parts
of the body.

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 Cont.…
• Motor neurons:
– called efferent neurons
– are multipolar neurons
– transmit impulses away from the brain and spinal cord.
– Conduct impulses mainly to two kinds of tissues:
muscle and glandular tissues.
• Interneurons:
− also called central or connecting neurons
− are multipolar neurons
− lie within the CNS
− Connect sensory and motor neurons

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 Nervous Tissue
• Controls and integrates
all body activities within
limits that maintain life

• Three basic functions

1. sensing changes with
sensory receptors
2. interpreting and
remembering those
changes
3. reacting to those
changes with
effectors
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 Types of Sensory Receptors
• Pain receptors- respond to chemicals released by damaged
cells
• Located everywhere except brain, essential to bodies
ability to detect injury or illness
• Thermoreceptors- detect changes in temperature
• Located in skin, body core, and hypothalamus
• Mechanoreceptors- sensitive to touch, pressure
• Found within skin, skeletal muscles, and ears
• Chemoreceptors- sensitive to chemical in external
environment entering the body
• Located in nose and taste buds
• Photoreceptors- sensitive to light
• Located on the retina within the eye
 Division of the nervous system
• The nervous system as a whole consists of two principal
divisions called the central nervous system and peripheral
nervous system.
• Because the brain and spinal cord occupy a midline or
central location in the body, they are together called the
central nervous system or CNS.
• Similarly, the nerves of the body termed as the peripheral
nervous system or PNS.
• A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system called the
autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates the body's
autonomous or involuntary functions such as heart rate,
contractions of the smooth muscles of stomach, and
intestines, and the secretion of chemical compounds by
gland. 21
Division of the nervous system…

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 Central Nervous System
• The CNS as its name implies, is centrally located
• Contains two major structures, the brain and spinal
cord
– brain is protected in the cranial cavity of the skull
– spinal cord is surrounded by the spinal column
• Even moderate pressure can kill nerve cells of the CNS,
so the spinal cord and the brain are surrounded
additionally by three fluid-containing membranes called
the meninges.

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 Cont.…
• The meninges include:
• Dura mater- the thick, and tough outer layer that
covers the external surface of the brain and spinal cord
• Pia mater- are delicate, transparent innermost
membranes that intimately cover the brain and
spinal cord.
• Arachnoid mater- which is the membrane between the
dura and pia mater.
• The CSF is located between the pia mater and
the arachnoid mater in space called
subarachnoid space

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Meninges around the brain

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Fig. the basic classification 28
of NS
 The Brain
• The brain is the largest, most complex portion of the
nervous system, containing 100 billion multipolar
neurons.
• Anatomical classification of brain
• The adult brain is described in terms of four major
regions:
Cerebrum
Diecephalon
Brain stem and
Cerebellum.
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The human brain

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Brain model

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 Cerebrum,

• is the largest and most conspicuous portion of the brain.

• Composed of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated

axons, associated glial cells and blood vessels
• is responsible for higher level functioning such as conscious
thought, awareness, reasoning and abstract mental
functions
• It has many ridges and grooves.

• The ridges are called gyri

• the grooves are called sulci and the deepest sulci are called
fissures 32
 Cerebrum
• The longitudinal fissure divides the cerebrum into right and left
halves or hemispheres.
• These halves are connected at their lower mid portions, by a
structure called the corpus callosum which provides the major
pathway for communication between the two hemispheres of
the cerebral cortex
• The left brain controls the right half of the body; the right brain
controls the left half of the body.
•
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• Each cerebral hemisphere consists of two layers.
• cerebral cortex
– surface layer 2–4 mm thick
– contains billions of neurons
– is composed of gray matter( nerve cell bodies.)
– has numerous folds and grooves.
• The elevated folds of the convolutions are the cerebral
gyri (singular, gyrus)
• deepest grooves between folds are sulci (singular, sulcus)
• white matter
– Beneath the cerebral cortex
– constitutes the inner layer.

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 The cerebral cortex

• Two deep sulci subdivide the cerebral cortex into

four major lobes and each lobe into numerous
convolutions.
• The lobes are named for the bones that lie over them
 frontal lobe,
 parietal lobe,
temporal lobe, and
occipital lobe
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 Main Sulci
• Central sulcus
– divides the frontal & parietal lobe
• Lateral (Sylvian) sulcus
– separates the temporal lobe from the frontoparietal
lobe
• Parieto-occipital sulcus
−marks the boundary between
the parietal and occipital lobes

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The cerebral cortex----

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 Cerebrum
lobes

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 Lobes of the Cerebral Hemisphere

Frontal Lobe:
forms the anterior portion of each hemisphere.
from the coronal suture to the frontal pole
Bounded by the:- lateral sulcus & central sulcus
•Contains
 Precentral gyrus: lies b/n precentral sulcus and central sulcus.
– contains the primary motor area
 Broca’s area- area in the dominant hemisphere associated with
speech
- involved in production and thinking about speaking
 Prefrontal cortex - related to
- working memory
- shifting of attention 42
• Parietal lobe:
– occupies the area posterior to the central sulcus and
superior to the lateral sulcus;
– it extends posteriorly as far as the parieto-occipital sulcus
 Contains
• Postcentral gyrus: lies between postcentral sulcus and central
sulcus.
– is the primary sensory area
– Receive information from cutaneous and muscular receptors.
• Related with:
 sensory processing, attention, and language
 Body image, speech, expression of thoughts & feelings and
use of words
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• Temporal lobe:
– lying below the lateral sulcus.
– located below the parietal lobe and the posterior
portion of the frontal lobe.
• Contains
- Auditory area - related with hearing
- Olfactory area – related with smelling

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 Occipital lobe
Occipital lobe: forms the posterior portion of the
cerebrum.
– lies posterior to the parieto-occipital sulcus
– lies superior to the cerebellum and separated from it by
tentorium cerebelli.
• contains the visual cortex

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 cont…
• The cerebral cortex can be also Classified into different regions
based on the modality of information processed
• Motor areas:- sends impulses to skeletal muscles and glands
− Coordinates & controls different movement activities
• Sensory areas:- Receives impulses from the body’s sensory
receptor.
− located in several areas of the cerebrum
− interpret sensory input by producing feelings or sensations.
• Association areas:- various association areas located on cerebral
cortex
− analyze and interpret sensory impulses
− function in reasoning, judgment, emotions, verbalizing ideas,
and storing memory.

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• Write four lobes cerebrum
• Which parts brain process visual information
• Write at least three types of receptors
• Write four major region or parts of brain

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The cerebral cortex---

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Some cortical areas

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Cerebellum
• The second largest part of the brain (little
brain)
• Location:
– In the posterior cranial fossa
– inferior to occipital lobe
– posterior to Pons & Medulla oblongata
– Posterior to 4th ventricle
Function
– Coordination of motor activity
– Regulation of muscle tone
– maintain balance and equilibrium
– Participates in motor planning

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Basal ganglia (motor performance)
• Masses of gray matter in each hemisphere which are
involved in the control of voluntary muscle movements
• Basalganglia have five major functional
subcomponents:
o Caudate nucleus
o Putamen
o Globus pallidus
o Subthalamic nucleus
o Substantia nigra
• Neurons in the basal ganglia regulate movement and
contribute to certain cognitive functions/learning of
motor skills.
• Basal ganglia receive input from all parts of the
cerebral cortex but send their output largely through
the thalamus to the frontal lobe.
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 Brain stem
• Consists of med. oblongata + pons + midbrain.
general functions
– Produces automatic behaviors necessary for survival
– Passageway for all fiber tracts running between the
cerebrum and spinal cord
– Heavily involved with the innervation of the face and head
– 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves attach to it
 Medulla oblongata
 Resembles that of Spinal Cord.
 Connect spinal cord to the brain.
 Contain major centers that regulate autonomic functions:
E.g. digestion , breathing , blood pressure, and heart rate
 reflex centers for vomiting, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, &
hiccups
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 Cont---
 Pons
 Connect the cerebellum to the brain stem
 Ventral: relay information about movement and
sensation from cerebral hemispheres to the
cerebellum.
 Dorsal: regulate respiration, taste and sleep.
 Midbrain:
• Controls sensory and motor functions eye
• coordinate of visual & auditory reflexes
• Links the motor system (BG, cerebellum, cerebral
cortex).

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Cont---

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Cont---

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 Spinal cord
• roughly cylindrical structure and the most caudal part of the CNS
• situated within the vertebral canal of the vertebral column
• surrounded by three meninges.
• begins superiorly at the foramen magnum.
• terminates inferiorly at the level of the lower border of LV1in the
adult and at LV3 in young children.
• Divided into anatomical segments (cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
and sacral)
• conus medullaris:
– tapered lower end of the spinal cord.
• Filum terminale
– is the lower extension of a pial filament from the conus
medullaris. 62
 Internal structures of spinal cord

• composed of an inner core of the gray matter and an outer

covering of white matter
Gray Matter - an H-shaped central pillar.
 located in the center of the spinal cord and is
densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites

 White matter – composed mostly of myelinated

axons that carries information from the gray matter

to the brain or other areas of the spinal cord

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Spinal cord---
• Gray matter
 Contains nerve cell bodies.
 Divided into dorsal + ventral horns.
• Dorsal horn
o Orderly arrangement of sensory
relay neurons that receive input
from the periphery.
• Ventral horn
o Contains groups of motor neurons
+ interneurons.
• White matter
o Ascending + descending tracts of
myelinated axons.
o Ascending pathways carry
sensory information to the brain.
o Descending pathways carry motor
commands + modulatory signals
from the brain to the muscles.
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Spinal cord---

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Spinal cord---

• 31 spinal nerves.
• Sensory + a motor
division.
 Sensory division/dorsal
root
o Muscles + skin.
o Pain + temperature +
touch + visceral
sensory information.
 Motor division/ventral root
 autonomic
o Sympathetic
o parasympathetic
axons.
 Innervate muscles,
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 Rami of Spinal Nerves
• Posterior (or Dorsal) ramus
– Innervates muscles and skin of the back
• Anterior Ramus
– Largest branch
– Forms plexuses
– Innervates anterior and lateral trunk, upper and lower
limbs

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 Nerve Plexuses
• A network of interweaving anterior rami of spinal
nerves.
– formed on both the right and left sides of the body.
• Nerve plexuses then split into multiple “named”
nerves that innervate various body structures.
• Principal plexuses includes:-
– cervical plexuses
– brachial plexuses
– lumbar plexuses
– sacral plexuses.

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 Nerve plexus…
Cervical Plexuses
The cervical plexuses lie on either side of the neck
and supply muscles and skin of the neck.
Brachial Plexuses
The brachial plexuses arise from lower cervical and
upper thoracic nerves and lead to the upper limbs.
Lumbrosacral Plexuses
The lumbrosacral plexuses arise from the lower
spinal cord and lead to the lower abdomen, external
genitalia, buttocks, and legs.
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Summary of Component of human brain and spinal cord

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 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• the part of the nervous system outside the CNS
• consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the brain
and spinal cord.
• Composed of 12 pairs of Cranial Nerves & 31 pairs of
Spinal Nerves.
• Cranial nerves carry signals to and from the brain,
• spinal nerves carry signals to and from the spinal cord
• Ganglia -areas where the cell bodies of neurons are
clustered
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 Cranial
• 12 pairs of cranial nerves numbered in Roman numerals
• Three of the nerves are solely composed of sensory fibers;
five are strictly motor; and the remaining four are mixed
nerves.
• All arise from the brain stem, except for the first 2 pairs
I. Olfactory(S) – carries smell impulses from nose to the brain
II. Optic(S) – carries visual impulses from eye to the brain
III. Occulomotor(M) – contraction of most of the eye muscles
IV. Trochlear(M) – innervates the superior oblique muscle (eye)

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 Cranial
V. Trigeminal(B) – sensory nerve of face & head, has 3 branches

that transport general sense impulses (pain, touch & temp.)

from the eye and the lower & upper jaw

VI. Abducens(M) – innervates lateral rectus, another eyeball

muscle

VII. Facial(B) – largely motor, supplies the muscles of facial

expression, provides taste sensation to the anterior 2/3rds of

the tongue

VIII. Vestibulocochlear(S)– carries sensory impulses for hearing

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 Cranial
IX) Glossopharyngeal (B) – carries sensory impulses from the
back of the tongue and throat, helps swallowing process and
carries taste sensation from the posterior 1/3rd of the tongue
X) Vagus(B) – longest nerve, supplies most of the organs in
the thoracic and abdominal cavities
XI) Accessory (M)– motor nerve with 2 branches, one supplies the
trapezius and the sternocleidomastoid, the other supplies the
larynx
XII) Hypoglossal (M) - carries impulses that control tongue
muscles

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Functionally, the PNS is divided
into
I. somatic nervous system
II. autonomic nervous system

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 PNS is divided into
A. somatic nervous system
• voluntary control
• Innervate skeletal muscle
• Involve one neuron

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B. Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
I. Sympathetic
II. parasympathetic
• Controls smooth muscle of the viscera (internal organs)
and glands (involuntary muscles).

• The preganglionic neuron is located in either the

brain or the spinal cord.
• The preganglionic neuron projects to an autonomic
ganglion.
• The postganglionic neuron then projects to the target
organ.
 Notice that the somatic nervous system has only one
neuron between the central nervous system and the
target organ
 But autonomic nervous system uses two neurons. 81
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