RELIGION

A-LEVEL, SOCIOLOGY
PAPER 4-
70 MARKS, 2 ESSAY QUESTIONS (35 MARKS EACH)
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QUESTIONS TO EXPECT (35 POINTS)

• 1) Sociological Perspective
• 2) Secularization
• 3) Religion and Social Groups
• 4) Post Modern Religion
RELIGION- SUBJECTIVE- ONE OF THE MOST
POWERFUL IDEOLOGY
• Many meanings- Personal Faith, Emotional Connection, Cultural Influence,
Religious Experience
• Two people attend the same religious ceremony.
• One feels spiritually uplifted and closer to God.
• The other feels nothing or even uncomfortable.
• This shows how religion is not experienced the same way by everyone

• Belief or Ideology- Sets of belief

• Need to have counter ideology and not a militant force to diminish it
• Make people believe in the counter ideology
HOW RELIGIOUS ARE YOU AND YOUR
FAMILY??
• Compare yourself or your family with a friend and his/her family.
• Report your findings on religiosity.
 DEFINITION OF RELIGION
• Can be defined in broad ideas:
• 1) A set of beliefs that includes an idea of ‘god’ or some kind of supernatural
force
or being that exists beyond our direct experience.
• 2) Practices: A collective worship and prayer, can be expanded to include
ceremonies (wedding, funerals, religious holidays).
• 3) Some kind of organization that allows practices and beliefs to be expressed as
a group (collectively). Sacred places reserved to express beliefs such as
mosques, churches, and people(imam, priests) are hired by a religious
organization to take service or look after believers’ well-being.
DEFINITION OF RELIGION: BELIEF OR
IDEOLOGY
1) Sets of Beliefs:
• 1) Monotheistic- A belief in single god, such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam.
• 2) Polytheistic- A belief in many gods, such as Hinduism and Paganism.
• 3) Non-theistic- There is no god. No worship of gods, such as some traditions of thought within
Buddhism.
In order for a
religion to exist
2) Practices must be present
practices must be
• Baptism present
• Prayers
• Rituals and Ceremonies
• Fasting
• Pilgrimage If less practices,
• Reading Sacred Texts ideology becomes
• Meditation and Reflection
weak
• Charity and Acts of Kindness
3) Organization: When more practices the religion as an organization will strengthen
 Explanation of Religion

Religion As a Belief
Functions of Religion System Or Ideology
(What it does for (What it means for
People) Inclusive people)  Exclusive
approach approach

1) Social Solidarity- 1) In favour of something

similar values 2) In against of
2) Socialization something
3) Social Control- what to
do and what not to do Behavior that is both
special and different
WHAT ARE SOME PRACTICES

• Personal communication with God through prayer.

• Communal worship.
• Exorcism- evil spirits are removed from a person or place.
• Baptism: Putting holy water to make someone Christian.
• Sometimes ideology is weak but practices are more. The world sees it to be more
religious.
• Practices are very important to have religion exist otherwise ideology will become
weak.
• Going to mosques, churches, temples.
ORGANIZATION: RELIGION- FUNCTIONS
• When practices are strong then organization (religion) becomes strong.
• Many individual ways to be ‘religious.
• Attending a church or never stepping a foot.
• What it does for people (inclusive) What it means for people
(exclusive)

Functions: (my need) Belief system or Ideology:

1) Social Solidarity (unity) (my love, my life)
2) Socialization 1) In favor of something
3) Social control 2) In against of something
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIGION

• McGuire (2002)- Religion has a ‘dual- character’. It is both individual and social
• Different religions encompass different beliefs and practices and teach a variety of
ways to be “religious”.
• Attending a church or not
• Praying or not

• Diversity and not a single entity. Dimensions of religion:

• Historical- in the same society over time.
• Contemporaneous- in the same society at the same time.
• Cross- Culture- between different societies.
FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
• Religion should be defined and understood how its various parts relate to and influence
one another.
• Inclusive- broad term- what religion does for an individual (what happens after death). People
can’t identify if people are becoming more religious (resacralisation) or less religious
(secularization).
• Exclusive- precise set of beliefs and practices (believing in god, prayer, worship). Behavior that
is special and different.
• Criticism of exclusive approach: Does religion actually have unique and exclusive experience??
Defined by religious institutions.

• Mcguire (2002)-
• Socialization into range or moral beliefs and values.
• Social solidarity- giving people a sense that they have things in common.
• Social control- direct- example Islamic codes defining what people may wear or eat.
indirect- moral values (how the individual is expected to lead their life in
accordance with God. Exclusive- precise set of beliefs and practices
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION

1) Providing Common Values

2) Creating Social Solidarity
3) Rituals
4) Intensification (practices become more intense during special times
example Ramazan)
INCLUSIVE AND EXCLUSIVE
Inclusive (broad) Exclusive (specific or precise)

Religion can include any system of belief that Religion is strictly defined and typically
gives meaning to people's lives. involves belief in a higher power or deity.

It may not always involve a belief in a deity or Includes traditional categories of organized
gods. religion.
Focuses on the social functions of religion, Communication with the supernatural through
like creating social solidarity, giving moral prayer
guidance, or providing existential meaning.
How people find meaning and organize their Moral codes, Sariah law example
lives even in non-traditional context.

Focus on Meaning and Purpose Sacred, special experience represented

through objects

belief systems like Christianity, Islam, and

Buddhism would be considered religions, but
belief systems like secular humanism or
political ideologies would not.
FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION- FUNCTIONALIST
PERSPECTIVE
• Durkheim (1912)- claimed religion fulfilled two functions
• 1) Social solidarity- religion creating feeling of belonging to a group with shared beliefs
and values.
• 2)Social integration- shared practices and experiences (religious ceremonies, services)
• Criticism of this approach–(inclusive-religion ‘everywhere and nowhere’)
• Religion is taken for social purpose rather than content of specific belief.
• Doesn’t care how, what, where, when you worship.
• Doesn’t care who you pray to one god, two or many.
• Only matter is how you collectively act and hold certain type of belief that influence that
behavior.
 FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE
• Functionalists support social institutions and take religion by it’s function only. What it
does for the society only.
• Functionalist believe religion creates, promote maintain cultural values and order in the
society.
• They support religion being inclusive (what it does for individual and society) approach of
religion.
• Religion contributes to social order and social solidarity.
• Maintains and continuity by promoting and supporting collective conscience (shared
believe of the society and values which bind the members of society).
TERMS
• Sacred- anything considered special or holy, the opposite of profane.
• Sacred texts, symbols, spaces, rituals etc.

• Profane- the everyday and ordinary, the opposite of sacred.

• Household items, technology, food, money, vehicles

• Religious beliefs- belief in a deity or supernatural power that may have control over
people’s destiny.
• Believe without belonging: when people do not belong to religious organizations or
practices religion in public, yet claim to be religious or believe in god.
 FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE - THOUGHTS ON
•RELIGION
Emile Durkheim- There is a need of upholding and reaffirming at regular intervals the collective
sentiments. (it creates unity we do it through collective meetings, assemblies, ceremonies etc. (Social
Integration)
• Understand religion by its effect not content. (whatever is said about religion is not important what
matters is that all people are getting together as a unit.
• Religious symbols create distinction between sacred and profane.
• Source of identity (Prophet’s mosque)
• Sacred things are saved for survival of society’s values.
• Sacred things or places provide peace and harmony to individual and groups to cope up with crisis.

• BELLAH- thoughts on religion

• Civil Religion- religion through its functions (charity hospitals)
• Can be secular or overtly religious.
• Animal shelter, environmentalist, animal rights,
DIFFICULTY IN MEASURING RELIGIOUS
BELIEFS
• Individual indicators-someone holds religious beliefs and can be orthodox (believing in
McGuire “dual
single power) or unorthodox (believing in witchcraft or more vaguely ‘spirituality’).
character”
• Social indicators- religious participation, attendance at religious services and memberships.
measurements
Cornwell across two
(1986) dimensions.
identified 3
• Knowing or the ‘belief dimension” broad
dimensions of
• Doing (participation/membership)
religiosity.
• Feeling: specific measure of commitment to both an individual’s belief and any religious organization with
which they are part of.
Attending
services
• Can we believe without belonging????? because of
• Can we belong without believing???? friendship,
social status,
• Does religious beliefs mean same thing to everyone? custom or
tradition?
 HOW TO MEASURE RELIGIOSITY

• Abrams (1985)-the extent to which they feel they belong to a particular religion
combining 4 main commitments.
• 1) Disposition (emotional orientation): the philosophical dimension to religiosity. ‘getting
comfort from prayer’
• how religion helps them cope, find comfort, or make sense of life.
• 2) Orthodox belief: the extent to which people believe in ideas like god and or the soul.
• Believing that God exist, the Day of Judgement, The Bible or the Quran is the word of God
• 3) Moral values: how these are influenced by religious values and teachings.
• The Shariah Law, in Islam, The Ten Commandments in Christianity and Judaism, Dharma in
Hinduism
• 4) Institutional attachment: the frequency with which people attend religious service,
meetings and ceremonies.
SOCIAL GROUPS AND RELIGIOSITY- SOCIAL
CLASS
• Social class: Class and belief is complicated by 1) definition and measurements of class 2) Measuring
people’s beliefs- Novane (2002) ‘just because people say they are religious, does not make it so, no
more than if they say they are intelligent or moral’
• Data about relationship between class and belief suggests that there are few differences in belief
about the existence of ‘god’ or some supreme being, or life after death and heaven.
• Middle and upper class attendance is higher than working class.
• Relationship between class and religiosity varies across different societies with different levels of
economic development and claimed beliefs.
• Historically- in middle and upper class being religious was a source of status.
• Upper class people used religious institutions to get power over the society
• Middle class- used church as a way of receiving social respect and acceptability.
• These rules may not apply in industrial societies.
• Postmodern societies- religiosity depends on the individual, personal identities, rather than the
collective social identities of the past.
SOCIAL CLASS

• Bruce- 1995- argued that the general attraction of NAMs (New age
movements-’meaning without motivation’) that spiritual growth appeals mainly
to those whose more pressing material needs have been satisfied.
• How can people find ‘inner light’ when their outside work lacks food, heat, light,
basic necessities of life.
• Theodicy of disprivilege: for working class (victims of inequality) a world view
offered by a religious explanation of their situation and can promise that suffering
now will be rewarded with a better future after death.
• This view is to encourage them to join religious organizations for compensation
for poverty in this life.
RACE AND ETHNICITY

Feature Race Ethnicity

Based on Physical traits Cultural identity

Examples Black, White, Asian Arab, Bengali, Pashtun, Latino

Determined by Society's perceptions Shared culture and ancestry

Can it be changed? Often seen as fixed Can change or be chosen

Sociological issues Racism, discrimination Cultural marginalization

GENDER AND ETHNICITY
• Men tend to have lower levels of religiosity than women but occupy the highest positions in
religious institutions.
• Different nations have different levels of religiosity.
• Emergent nations in Africa, Asia, and South America have higher levels of religious belief and
practices than developed nations such as UK and Germany.
• Collecting data on ethnicity is difficult to get as it is difficult to define ‘ethnic groups’.
• Age is also a significant part of measuring data from ethnicity point of view. (how to classify if
you are American or Pakistani?)
• Highest level of religiosity is found in Pakistan (92%) and Bangladesh (92%).
• These groups were amongst the very poor in British society. This shows correlation between
poverty/class and religiosity among some ethnic groups.
• Why do some ethnic groups have high level of religiosity when compared to other ethnicities
under similar economic circumstances???
AGE
• Older people tend to be more religious.
• In the UK, the average age group in terms of religiosity is the young under 35.
• People might be born in a particular decade or period and religious beliefs were socialize differently
affecting their commitment to religion.
• People have thoughts of death as they approach a certain age.
• Declining health
• Network of support for older people to socialize.
• Can seem old fashion for young people
• Churches policy are against what young people want. (abortions, gay marriages, birth control)
• Young people are busy with life happenings.
• Wide range of religions to pick from.
• Some young people become more religious then their parents in the UK. This is because they do
not agree with the western culture.
RELIGION AND OTHER BELIEF SYSTEMS
• Scientific explanation on the origin and nature of the world weakens the power of religious
explanations.
• Both ideology and religions are closed belief system (they cannot be disproved because
they rely on faith and belief and their followers will reject any evidence that challenges
their belief.
• Science is an open belief system, where scientific knowledge is based on research and
testing. Theories are tested and if they find out to be wrong will be rejected. Accurate
account of reality.
• Science can prove some religious beliefs to be false but cannot provide answers to all as
evidence is not present.
• Creationism(how god created the world) vs. Evolution (scientific explanation of how the
world was created): Many religious groups, particularly fundamentalist Christians, reject
evolution because it contradicts the literal interpretation of their sacred texts (e.g., the
Bible). They believe that the world was created by God in a deliberate act.
RELIGION AND OTHER BELIEF SYSTEMS
• Early sociologist believed that science would replace religion.
• They believed that religion belonged to the pre-modern era.
• Auguste Comte believed that laws of human nature will be uncovered by scientific
data.
• According to Auguste Comte there are 3 stages in human understanding of the world.
• 1) Theological stage: caused by gods, spirits and supernatural beings.
• 2) Metaphysical stage: Supernatural effects are reduced; people investigate natural
(sunrise, weather, fog, thunder, tornadoes; biological processes, hurricanes and
earthquakes etc.) and abstract (Strength or energy of body or mind) forces as power of
Nature.
• 3) Scientific stage: rational scientific explanations based on observations, evidence and
logic.
 RELIGION AND OTHER BELIEFS SYSTEM
• Max Weber argued that the world was becoming disenchanted (society becoming more
modern, political and secular (not connected with religion) and there is no place for the
magical or mystical for superstition, intuition and faith. Faith is replaced by science and
rational thoughts.
• Europe has become secular and only minorities are believing in god in modern society, but
religion is still strong globally.
• Replacement of religion by science as expected by sociologist has not happened.
• Science has also been challenged by postmodern society. It has created more problems in
the world than solving them.
• Pollution
• Climate Change
• Weapons of Mass destruction
• New kinds of diseases
RELIGION & SOCIAL ORDER- FUNCTIONALIST
PERSPECTIVE
• Collective conscience: shared beliefs and values which bind members of a community together.
• Religion creates and maintain order and continuity by promoting and supporting collective
conscience.
• Durkheim (1912)- said collective sentiments and collective ideas makes people unite. (Key to
understand religion is not its content but it’s effect.)
• Religion provides common values, social solidarity, rituals, providing source of identity, survival of
values, mental peace, people to cope up with crises.
• Rituals- Ceremony held due to religious beliefs which is repeated.
• Bellah- Civil Religion: Due to decline of religion in modern society, Bellah stated that societies have
developed idea of civil religion. Ideas and practices and beliefs shared by the majority of people in
the society. Nationalism has become a belief system like religion.
• Inauguration of Presidents- holding bible
• National Holidays
• Royal Traditions
• National Anthems
MARXISTS PERSPECTIVE ON RELIGION
• The Marxist approach to religion offers a critical perspective, emphasizing its role in
perpetuating social inequality and maintaining the status quo. Here are the key points:
1) Religion as Ideology:
• Marxists view religion as a form of ideology that reflects the interests of the ruling class
• It serves to legitimize social inequalities and distract the proletariat (working class) from
their exploitation.
2) "Opium of the People":
• Marx famously referred to religion as the "opium of the people," suggesting that it provides
an illusory comfort to the oppressed.
• This metaphor implies that religion dulls the pain of oppression, leading people to accept
their social conditions rather than challenge them.
MARXISTS PERSPECTIVE ON RELIGION
3) Social Control:
• Religion is seen as a mechanism of social control that reinforces existing power structures.
• By promoting values such as obedience, humility, and patience, religion can discourage rebellion
against oppressive systems.
4) Alienation:
• Marx argued that religion is a response to alienation in capitalist societies, where individuals feel
disconnected from their work and each other.
• Religion offers a sense of belonging and purpose but ultimately diverts attention from the need for
social change.
5) Historical Materialism:
• From a historical materialist perspective, Marxists analyze how material conditions and economic
structures shape religious beliefs.
• Changes in the economic base (e.g., capitalism) lead to transformations in the superstructure,
including religion.
RELIGION & SOCIAL ORDER-
MARXIST PERSPECTIVE- RELIGION, OPPRESSION,
CAPITALISM
• Marxists sees the role of religion in capitalist societies that ultimately benefits the ruling
class.
• He believes that religion makes people accept their situation i.e poverty, misery.
• Religion is oppressive (harsh) social force operates in hugely unequal capitalist society.
• Lower class should never question or challenge their relationship with the ruling class.
• Religion was a source of social control. To accept the world as it is.
• Purpose was to silence conflict- stop questioning why so much poverty in a very rich
society.
• Uphold existing position- ‘god given’ and beyond the power of people to change the situation
• Legitimize economic exploitation- God made the world, people should not question why some
are rich and some poor.
• Justify poverty- it’s a virtue and to suffer and not to complain.
MARXIST PERSPECTIVE-
• The Marxist perspective on religion is a critical view developed by Karl
Marx, who saw religion as a tool used by the ruling class (bourgeoisie) to
maintain control over the working class (proletariat). Here are the key points of
the Marxist perspective:
• 1-Religion as an Ideological Tool
• Marx argued that religion serves the interests of the ruling class by
legitimizing inequality and exploitation. It encourages the working class to
accept their suffering as part of a divine plan.
• Religion is the opium of the people.” – Karl Marx
This famous quote means that religion dulls the pain of oppression, just like
opium numbs physical pain, preventing people from seeking real change.
 MARXIST PERSPECTIVE-
• 2. Religion Justifies Social Inequality
• Religious ideas like:
• "It is God's will"
• "You’ll be rewarded in the afterlife"
• "The poor are blessed"
• ...are used to justify poverty, suffering, and hierarchy, so people don’t
challenge the status quo.
MARXIST PERSPECTIVE-
• 3- False Consciousness
• Religion contributes to false consciousness, where the working class is misled
to believe that their social position is natural or unchangeable. This prevents
revolutionary action.
• 4. Religion and Class Conflict
• Marxists believe that religion diverts attention from real-world problems like
low wages, poor living conditions, and exploitation by focusing on spiritual
concerns instead.
MARXIST PERSPECTIVE-
• 5. Religion Will Disappear in a Classless Society
• Marx predicted that in a communist society where class divisions no longer exist,
religion would "wither away" because people would no longer need it to cope with
suffering.
• Strengths:
• Highlights how religion can support inequality.
• Explains how religion can be used for social control.
• Criticisms:
• Too negative: Ignores the positive functions of religion (e.g., community, comfort).
• Not always conservative: Religion can also be a force for change (e.g., liberation
theology, civil rights movement).
• Secularisation: In modern societies, religion is declining, weakening its role in control.
CRITICISM ON FUNCTIONALIST & MARXIST
VIEW
• Functionalism focuses on what religion does for individuals and societies, any form of
collective behavior can be considered as religion.
• Functionalists- claim if religion declines then other institutions will take it’s place to
perform its functions. Almost impossible to disprove their view.
• Marxisits- They don’t question the capitalist economic system. No revolutionary
change (US civil rights movement, Iranian Revolution of 1979).
• Liberation Theology: Political philosophy which argues that the church should use its
power and resources to liberate the poor from their poverty.
RELIGION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Religion as a
conservative social Religion as a force
force Creates for Social Change
social stability • Neo
• Traditional Functionalism
Marxism • Neo Marxism
• Traditional • Weberian Theory
Functionalism (Max Weber)
RELIGION: SOURCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE- MAX WEBER
• Max Weber (Interactionist)
• Weberian perspective is an Individualistic approach
• Belief  Action  Change
• Belief  Losers will not go to the heaven OR do not overspend
• Action  Hard work OR Reinvestment of money
• Social Change  Feudal/Agricultural societies TO Industrial/Capitalist
societies
WEBERIAN PERSPECTIVE (MAX WEBER)

• Max Weber saw religion not just as a belief system, but as a major
social force that could shape economics, politics, and social
change.
• Religion as a Force for Social Change
• He argued that Calvinist Protestantism in 16th–17th century Europe
helped lead to the rise of capitalism.
• Calvinists believed in predestination and showed signs of being
"elect" (chosen by God) by living simply and working hard.
• This led to a "protestant work ethic" — hard work, discipline, and
saving — all values that matched capitalist development.
RELIGION: SOURCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE- MAX
WEBER
•Interactionist approach- Interaction  belief  Action (social change)
• Exclusive definition of religion  what religion means for individual and society.
• Max Weber: less focus on what religion does and more on what it means.
• 1) Individuals: Motivations and behaviors of one who think they are religious. Example:
studying
• 2) Society: Collective religious beliefs, and how these influence the development of culture
identities, legal systems, or a complete economic system (capitalism)

• Weber wanted to understand why capitalism developed in some societies, like England
and not in others. Similar level of economic and technological development.
• Weber found that religion can create a capitalist work ethic which leads to social change
• England development took place due to Calvinism- belief that pushed the spirit of
capitalism.
 RELIGION: SOURCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE-
•WEBER
Calvinists believed that God would know before individuals were born if they were
destined to achieve salvation (being saved and protected from harm).
• The way to prove that you will go in heaven would be with being successful (throughout
life), moral, modest, hard work, thriftiness (avoid wasting money), and the reinvestment
of money.
• Weber argued that these attributes required to develop capitalism, hence long-term
business success.
• States that religion is not necessarily a conservative force as it can start a social change.
• Religion has transformed societies from feudalist society to capitalist. (Britain)
• Protestant ethic: philosophy of serving God by hard work, thrift and moral uprightness.
• Social change came from:
• Technological changes gave opportunity to create wealth in a new and dynamic way
• Social group (Calvinists)- with the ideology that allowed these opportunities to be use.
CRITICISM ON CALVINISM
• Tawney- believed that capitalism came due to technological changes.
• Fanfani- argues that capitalism developed in some areas of Europe where Calvinism
was not even a religious force.
• Viner- said Calvinism served as a conservative force in some areas such as Scotland
where development came much later.

• John Calvin
LIBERATION THEOLOGY-
• Developed in South American countries such as Brazil in 1950s and 1960.
• It brought Christian theology and Marxism to bring up the concerns of the poor and the
need for a revolutionary change.
• Some Catholic priests formed a political alliance with revolutionary groups to oppose
government policies against the wishes of Catholic church who supported hierarchy.
• Some priests and nun moved into poor neighborhood to show support.
• They helped them with literacy programs and giving them more political awareness.
• They argued that Jesus has always sided with the poor and oppressed.
• Church must side with the poor, use its resources to help support him make his
condition better.
• Liberation Theology movement did make a change in many countries, from dictatorship
to democracy.
• Many people opposed the movement as they see it distortion of Christianity.
 RELIGION AS FORCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE- REVOLUTION
STORIES
• 1- Calvinism- Spirit of hard work, thriftiness, and the reinvestment of money  leads to social
change.
• 2- Liberation theology- South America: social movement that emerged in the late 1960s
and 1970s, particularly within the Catholic Church in Latin America. It combines Christian
theology with political activism, especially in relation to social justice, poverty, and human
rights.
• 3- Iranian Revolution-
• 4- Evangelical Movements-
• 5- Arab Spring Egypt- (Muslim Brotherhood played an important role): Started in Tunisia 
street vendor 26 years old (didn’t have the license to sell),  set himself on fire  revolution
started  movement spread on facebook, youtube and twitter, Tunisian president fled
followed by Algeria, Jordan, Oman, Yemen, Sudan, Libya, Lebanon, Syria, Morocco.
• Egyptian ruler Hosni Mubarak was thrown down after being dictator of 30 years.
Perspective
Common Beliefs Criticism Sociologist
CORE PERSPECTIVES
Beliefs about OF RELIGION
Religion

Functionali -Religion is a
conservative social
• Religion is positive for
them.
Worsley- says there is no sharp division
between sacred and profane. Some people
• Durkhiem- says role of
religion in creating and
st force • Religion stabilizes the don’t believe in sacred and profane (Amulant maintaining value consensus.
(positive -Religion stabilizes
the society
society in the favor of
society who create the
example)
Durkhiem’s theory is applicable to small scale
•
•
Parson-
Malinwski
functions -Socialization, value consensus and society where there is one religion. Collective • Alpert
of religion- Harmony, social collective conscience. consensus cannot be present when there are • Distinguish between Sacred
control, • A network of shared multiple religions. and Profane
Inclusive- vitalization, beliefs and knowledge. Mestnovic (Post modernist)- says collective • Toteism- if you worship the
Structurali collective • Power of society conscience is negated by diversity. Totem you worship the
conscience, value • Inclusive- What religion society. Shows collective
st) Conesus does for individual and conscience of society.
society.

Neo • Religion is the

force for social
• Criticize traditional
functionalist by giving
• Neglect power dynamics
• Overly focused on Western religion
Functionali change. religion status of
st conservative force which
is not applicable of force
for social change

Marxists- • Religion is a
conservative
• Religion is negative for
them.
• Marx ignores the positive functions of the
religion
• Karl Marx-Religion creates and
legitimates capitalist values.
Structurali social force • Religion stabilizes the Opium of the people
st- • Religion
stabilizes the
society in favors of
capitalism or ruling class.
• Althusser- Ideological State
Apparatus.
exclusive society • Whatever functions • Religion is a big hurdle in
• Conflict religion will perform will brining social change.
approach end of helping the • People can’t challenge the
• Conflict capitalist class. power of status
structuralism • Working class lack control • Capitalist class controls means
against the • Opium of the People (to of production and distribution
existing social dull the pain of • Religion says class is given by
order and exploitation, Numb) God
social • Exclusive- what it means • Religion justifies the inequality
Perspective Common Beliefs Beliefs Criticism Sociologist
about Religion

Feminist Religion is a Religion supports patriarchy and such as how religious beliefs, practices, and
conservative social male dominance socioeconomic institutions can perpetuate gender
force liberation theology, which status, inequalities.
-Religion stabilizes the emphasizes social justice and ethnicity, and
society the importance of addressing historical
both gender and class context, that
inequalities within religious influence
frameworks. women's
experiences
within religion.
Weberian Religion is the force for • By saying the whole society is Underestimates • Max Weber
social change. going in one way. Belief the role of
Perspecti Belief is formulate due Individual ideas perspective  economic
ve- to the interaction then lead towards an action  social conditions in
shaping social
you act. change in the form of
Interacti Focus on what religion capitalism. behavior
onism- means for individual • Calvinism  it develops ideas Overemphasizing
Calvinism
Exclusive and society. and beliefs in individuals mind in
approach
favor of capitalism.

Malinows Functionalist Social Cohesion, Psychological • Oversimplifyi Malinowski- Religion promotes solidarity
Perspective Needs ng- deeper through performing the psychological
ki • Gives sense of control over life meanings & functions for an individual. Copes up with
• Deeply connected with everyday spiritual stress. Peace
life dimensions
of religion.

Parson Functionalist • contributing to cohesion, • Emphasis on Parson- Religion helps people cope with
Perspective stability, and meaning in Wester unforeseen events and uncontrollable
society while also being religious outcomes.
capable of adaptation in a traditions. • Destiny
Bellah Civil Religion Unification of multi-faith Bellah
societies like US.
Attaches sacred qualities of
societies itself. (American
culture)
Don’t have to believe in God.
THE EVANGELICAL MOVEMENT- IN THE USA
• The New Christian Right movement (NCR)-
• Right wing = conservative, Left wing = democratic (far right in politics movement)
• Evangelical movement is marked by its emphasis on personal faith, active engagement in
social issues, and a commitment to spreading the Christian faith.
• Focused on ‘need to be born again’ and the literal truth of the bible.
• They were anti-democratic and authoritarian and didn’t tolerate difference of opinion.
• They banned a lot of things in the society.
• This movement only got limited success as it cannot work in the modern society.
• Fundamentalist movements cannot succeed in the modern society to bring social change
because they do not connect with widely held beliefs as democracy, equality and religious
freedom.
THE IRANIAN REVOLUTION
• The Iranian Revolution, also known as the Islamic Revolution, took place in 1979 and resulted in the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy led
by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The revolution was marked by the leadership of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who became a central figure
in the movement. Here are some key aspects:
1. Causes: Widespread dissatisfaction with the Shah's autocratic rule, political repression, human rights abuses, and social inequalities. The
Shah’s modernization and Westernization efforts, such as the White Revolution, also faced backlash from traditionalist and religious groups.
2. Role of Ayatollah Khomeini: Khomeini, an influential Shia cleric, emerged as a vocal critic of the Shah. He galvanized various segments of
society, including students, intellectuals, and religious leaders, against the regime. His messages emphasized Islamic governance and social
justice.
3. Mass Protests: The revolution was characterized by widespread protests and strikes that brought together diverse groups united against
the Shah. The protests intensified in late 1978, leading to significant unrest and violence.
4. Fall of the Shah: In January 1979, the Shah left Iran, ostensibly for medical treatment, and Khomeini returned from exile on February 1,
1979. The monarchy effectively collapsed, and the Pahlavi regime was replaced by a provisional government led by Khomeini’s supporters.
5. Establishment of the Islamic Republic: In April 1979, a referendum was held, resulting in the establishment of the Islamic Republic of
Iran. The new government implemented a theocratic system based on Shia Islamic principles, with Khomeini as the Supreme Leader.
6. Impact: The revolution had profound effects both within Iran and globally. It led to significant changes in Iranian society, including the
imposition of Islamic law (Sharia), restrictions on women's rights, and the suppression of political dissent. Internationally, it shifted the
balance of power in the Middle East and inspired various Islamist movements.
• The Iranian Revolution remains a pivotal moment in modern history, influencing the political landscape of the region and global relations.
 THE SECULARIZATION DEBATE
• Secularization: The process by which religious institutions, practices, and beliefs lose their
social significance.
• Religious Revival: a contemporary growth in the popularity of different religions.
• Disengagement: a process by which people withdraw from religious involvement, in terms of
beliefs and /or practices.
• Secular Society: A society in which religion plays a diminished role in public life and individual
identity.
• Secularization Theory: Proposes that as societies modernize, they naturally become less
religious.
• Religion and Identity: The role of religion in personal and collective identity, particularly in
multicultural contexts.
• Public vs. Private Religion: The distinction between the decline of organized religion in public
life versus personal belief systems.
THE SECULARIZATION DEBATE
• Secularization refers to the ways in which religious influence has declined in contemporary societies. Difficult to
compare past levels of beliefs, behavior and commitment (religiosity) with present ones.
• 1) how ‘religion’ is defined, inclusive ideas can make it difficult to judge the level of religiosity.
• 2) the point at which comparisons are made is important. There is no agreement about at what point ‘in the past’ can be
chosen for comparing.
Key Perspectives:

Evidence for a decline in religious beliefs

1) Institutional decline: Privatized beliefs, Loss of practical functions (education and welfare by the State)
2) Practical decline: Church attendance, sharp decline by 10% of the UK population
3) Ideological: Things that were explained by religion as now being explained by science.
Bruce (2011): Argues that in modern societies, religious authority has declined due to factors like science, rationalization,
and pluralism.
Decline of clergy professional by 25% in the past 100 year, 19 th century weddings were religious ceremonies
Wilson (1966): Noted that the growth of scientific understanding has led to a decrease in religious explanations for natural
phenomena.
Marshall (1994): argued that focus should be on privatization of belief rather than influence of organizations or public
religious practice.
THE SECULARIZATION DEBATE
Marshall (1994)- How to understand secularization should be focus on “privatization of belief” rather than the
influence of the organization or public religious practice.
1) The importance of religion in any society
2) How seriously people take it
3) The number of people who take it seriously
Beliefs are most valid indicator but not much objective data to measure from the past.
In the past religion dominated all aspects of the society (cultural, political, and economic).
Currently religion’s influence is marginal.
Crockett and Voas- As societies modernize, social significance of religion and participation declines.
1) Ideas and organizations that once had a strong hold over people’s lives are weekend in large-scale
complex modern societies.
2) People have access to knowledge (religious ideas as weaken)
3) Religious pluralism (individual choices, multiple religions)
RELIGIOUS DIVERSITY:

• ‘undermines the plausibility of any single religion’ leading to a general decline in religion.
• Religious organizations can no longer present a ‘united ideological front’ to the world.
• Hadden (2001)- argues that we can best understand secularization by thinking in terms of
its impact on three dimensions.
• 1) Cognitive (thinking) dimension- how information and beliefs are organized in the
modernalized world about the nature and God.
• 2) Institutional dimensions involve the ideas that many of the functions once performed by
religion have been taken over by secular institutions.
• 3) Behavior dimensions: change from public to private; (‘personal faith’)

•Religion has evolved and changed, rather than declined.

 THE SECULARIZATION DEBATE

Individualization:

•Beck and Giddens: Emphasize the move towards individual choice in religion.
People are more likely to pick and choose beliefs rather than adhere strictly to traditional practices.
•This shift is reflected in the rise of "spiritual but not religious" identities.

•Changes in Family Structure:

•Secularization has led to a variety of family forms (single-parent, cohabiting, etc.), which
contrasts with traditional religious teachings about the family unit.

•The Postmodernist view suggests that individuals construct their own identities and values,
influenced by a range of social factors beyond religion.
COUNTERARGUMENT- SECULARIZATION
Religious Revival:
Davie (1994): Proposes the idea of “believing without belonging,” suggesting that
while formal religious participation may decline, personal spirituality and belief persist.
Norris and Inglehart (2004): Argue that as societies become more secure
(economically and socially), demand for religion increases as a source of comfort.

Globalization and Religion:

Globalization has led to the spread of religious movements and the rise of
fundamentalism in some contexts, suggesting that religion remains a potent force in
many societies.

Cultural Christianity:
Some argue that even in secular societies, cultural Christianity influences values,
norms, and practices, contributing to social cohesion.
TEST REVIEW: TO WHAT EXTENT CAN RELIGION BE SEEN AS A
SOURCE OF SOCIAL CHANGE?
• Religion can be seen as a source of social change to a significant extent. While some sociologists,
such as Marx and Durkheim, have argued that religion serves to maintain social order and
reinforce existing power structures, others have highlighted its potential to challenge and
transform societal norms and institutions.
 Liberation Theology: Liberation
Weber's Protestant Ethic: Max
Theology, which emerged in Latin
Weber's work on the Protestant
America in the 1960s, is a prime
Ethic and Calvinist belief
highlights the role of example of how religion can be
Protestantism in shaping modern used to challenge existing power
capitalism and promoting social structures and promote social
change. According to Weber, the change. This movement
Protestant emphasis on hard emphasized the need for social
work, individualism, and justice and equality, and
rationality helped to create a encouraged Christians to take an
new economic and social order. active role in promoting these
values.
RELIGION AS SOCIAL Postmodernists
CHANGE sees
Civil Rights religion as serving an
Movement: The individual. “Spiritual Examples: The Civil Right
Civil Rights shopping” picking and Movement in the US
Movement in the choosing elements of Iranian Revolution
United States is various religions or Liberation Theology
another example of spiritual practices that fit
how religion can be their personal
a source of social preferences.
change. Many
African American Social movements:
 Alternative values: Religion can provide a
churches played a
key role in the Religion can provide framework for social
movement, alternative values movements, which can
providing a and norms that challenge existing
platform for leaders challenge existing power structures and
such as Martin societal norms and promote social change.
Luther King Jr. to promote social
advocate for racial change.
equality and social
justice.
RELIGION AS SOCIAL CHANGE- LIMITATIONS AND
CRITICISM

Functionalists
• Marxists Sociologist believe that due to
view it as social
solidarity and economic system religion doesn’t bring social
collective change as it discourages the working class to
identity rather
than making a
overthrow the capitalist system. seen as an
social change. obstacle to social change because it serves the
interests of the ruling class by promoting a false
consciousness.
TEST REVIEW: 'RELIGION IS MORE ABOUT SOCIAL CONTROL THAN
PERSONAL BELIEF.'

From a Marxist
perspective, religion is Max Weber's
seen as a tool of social perspective argued that
control, used by the ruling religion can be both a
class to maintain their source of social control
power and exploit the and a means of personal
working class. Marx expression. Weber
argued that religion serves believed that religion can
as an "opium of the provide a sense of
people," distracting them meaning and purpose, but
from their true class it can also be used to
interests and preventing legitimate existing power
them from challenging the structures and social
existing social order hierarchies
Church of England Protestant work ethic
'RELIGION IS MORE ABOUT SOCIAL CONTROL THAN
PERSONAL BELIEF.'
Feminist perspective,
religion is often seen as a
means of patriarchal control,
used to regulate women's
bodies and behaviors. Feminist
scholars argue that religious
institutions and teachings
have been used to justify
gender inequality and
oppression

Women excluded from

positions of power and
authority
TEST REVIEW: RELIGION ACT AS A CONSERVATIVE FORCE
IN SOCIETY.

Functionalist Perspective
Functionalists, such as Emile
Durkheim and Talcott Parsons, Marxist Perspective
argue that religion acts as a Marxists argue that religion
conservative force by promoting social acts as a conservative force by
cohesion, maintaining stability, and justifying and maintaining class
upholding social norms and values. inequality, “Opium of the
Example: people”.
The role of the Catholic Church in
opposing same-sex marriage and
abortion in many societies can be seen
as a way of upholding traditional family
values and maintaining the social
order.
TEST REVIEW: RELIGION ACT AS A CONSERVATIVE
FORCE IN SOCIETY.

Feminist Perspective
Feminist theorists argue
that religion is a
conservative force that
maintains and reinforces Max Weber offers a view, arguing
patriarchal that religion can act as both a
In many religious conservative and a revolutionary
institutions, leadership force.
roles are reserved for
men (e.g., priests,
rabbis, imams),
 TERMS- 7.4 SECULARISATION
• Secularisation: making changes to something so that it is not influenced by religion.
• Religious Revival: a contemporary growth in the popularity of different religions.
• Disengagement: Process by which people withdraw from religious involvement, in terms of beliefs and/or
practices.
• Religious Diversity: the existence of different forms of religious belief, practice and organization in a society.
• Universe of meaning: the way that religion provides a set of belief that give people’s lives focus and meaning.
• Sacred Canopy: The way that religion protects people from the meaninglessness of existence by providing
answers to questions and a sense of purpose in life.
Two theories explain why religious participation is declining in some countries but
remain strong in others.

• Religious market theory: a rational choice theory that suggests that religious organizations compete for
customers in a religious market place.
• Existential security theory: the theory that levels of religious participation depend on levels of existential
security, the extent to which people feel safe and confident about their survival.
TERMS- 7.4 SECULARISATION
• Religious Pluralism: When there are is a range of beliefs and of religious organizations,
rather than one organization having a monopoly.
• Christocentric: Focused on Jesus Christ and Christianity. Often a criticism of approaches
that do not take full account of other religions.
• Disneyisation (of religion): the transformation of religion into a neutral, simplified
version of itself.
CONCLUDING SECULARIZATION
Secularization refers to the process by which religious institutions, practices, and beliefs lose their
social significance. In modern societies, this can manifest in a decline in religious participation,
reduced influence of religious institutions, and the rise of secular worldviews.
• Decline in Religious Practice: Evidence suggests that fewer people attend religious services,
pray, or participate in religious rituals, particularly in Western societies. This is often cited as proof
that religion is losing its hold on individuals.
• Privatization of Religion: Religion has become more of a private matter rather than a public one,
with people practicing their faith privately rather than through institutional participation.
• Disengagement of Religious Institutions: In many societies, religious institutions have less
influence over political and social life. The separation of church and state, for example, reflects this
diminishing power.
• Rationalization and Scientific Thinking: According to Max Weber, the process of rationalization
in modern societies—where science and reason take precedence over superstition and religious
belief—leads to the "disenchantment" of the world, reducing the need for religious explanations.
ARGUMENTS AGAINST SECULARIZATION
• Persistence of Religion: Critics argue that religion is not disappearing but changing
form. In some cases, religious participation remains strong or even increases in certain
parts of the world, such as in Islamic countries or within evangelical Christianity.
• Believing without Belonging: Sociologist Grace Davie argues that while institutional
participation in religion may be declining, personal belief in spirituality remains strong.
People may still hold religious beliefs but no longer feel the need to participate in formal
religious organizations.
• Religious Pluralism: Rather than secularization, some theorists point to a
diversification of religious practice. Religious pluralism, where multiple religions coexist,
suggests that religion is adapting to modern conditions rather than disappearing.
• Postmodern Views on Secularization
• Postmodernists, like Lyon, argue that religion has not declined but rather changed in
how it is expressed. The rise of new religious movements, spirituality, and individual
forms of belief reflect a shift in how people relate to religion in a globalized, postmodern
society.
7.5 GENDER, FEMINISM AND RELIGION
• Feminist Perspective on Religion:
• Walter and Davie’s (1998)- Observation that in western societies influenced by Christianity,
women are more religious than man on virtually every measure.
• More women 83% than men 74% claimed some form of affiliation to a religious organization
such as church.
• In the US 86% of women and 79% of men claimed a religious affiliation
• Women also pray and believe more in the concept of life after death.
• Women between the age of 21 and 40  more church attendance from women then men.
• Data for Muslims is different as more men’s attendance in mosque. This is due to gender
norms.
• Christianity promotes ideas of love and care more attractive to non-working women.
GENDER ROLE AND RELIGION
• Daly (1968) argued that patriarchal forms of religion have an attraction in terms of offering:
• 1) Order where religious beliefs and institutions provide uncertainties in a confusing world.
• 2) Rules that clearly identify the limits of acceptable behavior.
•Religion provide women:
•Shelter – ‘a home and haven’ in a male dominated world.
•Safety in a threatening world.
•Belonging, in the sense of finding personal identity through group membership.
•These benefits comes at a price for women in terms of submission to patriarchal control.
•Religions are male dominant and are difficult to challenge. (Islam and Christianity) – men hold most of the
dominant positions.
•Stained Glass Ceiling: the barriers that female clergy face in trying to progress beyond a certain level, in
the hierarchy.

•Gender Equality: Female religious movements are very small. Few things have been promoted to give a say
to women in the form of religion. a) spaces within religions, activities for women b) Ideologies- adopted for women
environmentalist politics, animal rights and spirituality.
7.6 RELIGION AND POSTMODERNITY
• There is no single, definite, modernist view of religion and of postmodernism.
• No unified perspectives.
• Taylor (1987) observes that postmodernist approach to religion includes
• “God is dead” and religion is disappearing.
• We are witnessing a ‘return of traditional faith (resacralistion)
• Religion evolves and takes new forms

• There can be general concepts that can be applied to religion in postmodernity.

• Resacralisation: the renewal of religious beliefs, society becoming more religious.
• In modern period- Knowledge about the world was organized around a series of Competing
Metanarratives: stories that explain “everything about something” or “everything about
everything”.
• Claims to exclusive truth and the only form of truth.
• explain the importance of religion and explain modern phenomenons.
7.6 RELIGION AND POSTMODERNITY
• In postmodernity period people no longer believe in metanarratives. Single believe can
sustain the monopoly of the truth.
• Increasing doubt about metanarratives suggest:
• 1) Decline in religion’s power and control over people’s lives in a way it did in the past.
• 2) ‘Local narratives’-focus on people’s personal situations and circumstance while religion
loses power and influences in secular society.
• Post modernity involves greater choices and more opportunities, meaning and behaviours.
• Symbols losing original meanings and power. Fashion and display (profane). Ornaments or
someone’s identity.
• Televised religious services: Experiences are real but qualitatively different.
• From metanarratives to individual narratives. Based on personal identity which can be changed
anytime.
Decline: as organized religions Development: as religious
lose their beliefs and practices shift and
• Contradictory setability to control
of beliefs andsignificance religious
about the ideas, practices and organizations in
influence events in the secular change. Reinvention of beliefs
both past and present. and practices
world
GROWTH IN PRIVATISED RELIGION
• Religion used to play an important role in public, political and social life.
• People used to worship publicly and were seen as religious.
• Religion has become private in the domain of home and family : due to secular politics, demand of
economic globalization and cultural and ethnic diversity.
• Christianity in Western Europe has become private religious practice. Church attendance has decreased.
• Role and functions of organized religion has changed. People don’t need religion to perform the
following functions:
• 1) Communality: brining people physically together.
• 2) Social Solidarity: Binding them together through common beliefs.
• 3) Identity: idea that we become ‘centered’ or secure in the knowledge of ‘who we are’ through communal
religious practices.

• Religion doesn’t disappear but takes the role as privatized practice.

• Public participation is done through weddings and funerals and people still want to public acknowledgement.
• Public practice is replaced by entertainment, shopping, sport, media etc.
GROWTH IN PRIVATISED RELIGION
• Putman (2000): states that modern societies have seen a gradual withdraw of public
participation in all areas of society, from trade unions and political parties to moral
local community-based groups and clubs.  leads to cultural transition not one
restricted to religious organization.
• Cultural defence: Uniting communities against an external threat  a process by
which religious ideas and practices are used by social groups as a source of physical
and psychological protection in a hostile and challenging world.
• It involves a conscious effort to preserve traditional customs, values, beliefs, and
practices that may be perceived as under threat from outside influences, such as
Westernisation or global cultural homogenisation.
• Bruce: Situation is different in minority ethnicities where cultural defence is used.
• Pakistan- Religion has become more visible by building mosques due to cultural defence.
SPIRITUAL SHOPPING
• Spiritual Shopping: idea that in postmodernity religious consumers are more likely to
‘shop around’ for a faith or religion that suits their individual needs.
• Combining different set of beliefs to make their own individual beliefs. Supermarket  what
is available and what do I want.
• People become consumers instead of believers. People look for the following:
• 1) Peace of mind
• 2) Positive self image
• 3) Physical health
• 4) Personal empowerment.
• 5) enlightenment/insight
• Religious Consumerism: the claim that in postmodern society religions behave more like
business organization, where customers are encouraged to buy into a range of different beliefs,
practices and organisations.
DEBATE ABOUT RESACRALISATION  POSTMODERNITY
• Desacralisation: process in which self and society become progressively less religious/spiritual.
Removing or diminishing the sacredness of something that was previously considered sacred or
holy.
• Postmodernist debate about how religious changes in recent times are evidence of not a
desacralization but of a resacralisation of society.
• They believe people are becoming more religious and spiritual.
• In the past people had no choice but to be ‘religious”. Forced to attend
• People now choose their religion and by doing so they are actually showing greater commitment.
• Growth of Christian and Islamic religious movements. Religious practices are in some part of the
world flourishing.
• They say evidence of secularization depends on how religiosity is defined.
• 1) Pro-secularization theory: believe modern societies prone to secularization. Institutions then
organizational practices then individual beliefs.
• 2) Anti-secularization theory: reverse the above process. Religion serves a human need.
NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS (NRMS)
• New Religious Movements (NRMs): movements that developed in the mid 20th century.
• It refers to relatively recent religious, spiritual, or philosophical groups that have emerged,
often in the 19th or 20th century, as alternatives to traditional religious systems.
• Chryssides (2000) suggests that NRMs involve:
• Answering fundamental questions about life and death
• Rites of passage that mark “key life events”
• Life-coping strategies addressing ‘problems of existence’ rather than simply personal life issues, such
as how to be more successful in business.
• Ethical codes that set out how life should be lived.
• NRMs represent new ways of ‘doing religion’ and ‘being religious’ with the focus on finding solutions to
individual and social problems through personal transformations, the individual changes their life in some
way.
• NAM cover a variety or beliefs and practices to make a stable community of believers.
• New Age Religion:
• Holistic milieu: a collective term for New Age and alternative spirituality activities.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON NEW RELIGIOUS
MOVEMENTS
• Functionalism: Functionalists view NRMs as fulfilling certain societal or individual
needs, especially during times of social upheaval. NRMs may provide a sense of
belonging, moral guidance, or answers to existential questions that people feel
traditional religions no longer address adequately.
• Marxism: Marxists often view NRMs as another form of ideological control that can
distract individuals from class struggles. Some NRMs, however, may also be seen as
counter-hegemonic, offering resistance to mainstream capitalist ideologies.
• Postmodernism: Postmodern sociologists suggest that NRMs are a response to the
decline of traditional grand narratives (such as mainstream religion) and reflect the
fragmentation of belief systems in a postmodern world. NRMs often mix elements of
different traditions, appealing to individuals seeking personal spiritual experiences
rather than institutionalized religion.
FUNDAMENTALIST RELIGIONS
• Fundamentalism: forms of belief and organization that advocate a strict observance of
the basic beliefs of a religion.
• Example: “eye for an eye” or strict dress code.
• These groups remove risk in an uncertain world by removing choices that create
uncertainty.
• Clear moral guideline, drawn from religious texts.
• Three common features of all fundamentalist religions:
• 1) They claim their version of religion ‘to be the only true one’ all other forms must be opposed.
• 2)The movement feels threatened by alternative secular and religious views of the world.
Christian fundamentalism, sees Islam as enemies.
• 3) They exercise control over both the individual and society across three main areas: a)
ideological: what members believe b) internal: how members behave c) how everyone in
society should behave
FUNDAMENTALIST RELIGIONS
• Fundamental religions are ‘modern political movements’ that use religion as a basis for
their attempt to win or consolidate power and extend social control.
• These groups want: 1) remove ‘undesirable’ political and ideological changes 2) change
society that in ways that suit the particular ideological beliefs of the movement.
• Many people see the globalized world as a frightening and dangerous place. They feel
threatened and alone. Fundamentalist religions provide certainties and rules of behaviour
imposing a sense of order and stability.
• Growth of these groups can also be taken as religious revival, a development that seems
to go against secularization.
• This can also be used a a cultural defence, both physical and psychological. If culture,
language, values are under threat  greater religiosity can be a defence. Example:
Iranian Revolution.
CULTURAL TRANSITION
• Cultural Transition: in the sociology of religion where groups, for example after
migrating, are able to draw on religion to help their adaptation to their new situation.
• This helped with the transition to life in a new society. Church support groups.