Hydrogen:
Hydrogen has the highest energy content per unit of mass of
any chemical fuel (CV = 1,20,000 kJ/kg)
It can substitute for hydrocarbons in a broad range of
application
Its combustion efficiency is higher
It can be used as fuel directly or can be used as a raw material
to produce methanol, ammonia, or hydrocarbons by using
either carbon dioxide or nitrogen from the atmosphere.
Hydrogen is chemically very reactive and hence it is not found
in its free state on the earth.
Boiling Point is -253°C
Autoignition Temperature is 585°C
Density 0.08 kg/m3
Octane number is 130
Characteristics:
At standard temperature and pressure,
hydrogen is a colorless
tasteless
odorless gas
Hydrogen gas is highly flammable and will burn in
air in concentrations between 4% and 75% by
volume
Hydrogen is not toxic, but in its pure form is a
chemical asphyxiant.
An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which
reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing
air. Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by
asphyxiation (suffocation).
Hydrogen gas leaking into air may spontaneously
ignite
Applications:
Hydrogen is used to make ammonia for fertilizers
Refining metals
For making artificial material like plastics
Hydrogen is also used as a rocket fuel ( cryogenics)
where liquid hydrogen is combined with liquid oxygen
to produce a powerful explosion
Welding
Fuel Cells
Hydrogenation of fats and oils
Hydrating human body, body cells absorbs
hydrogen
Used to remove sulfur from fuels during the oil-
refining process
For filling balloons (hydrogen gas much lighter
than air; however it ignites easily)
Hydrogen Production
The majority of hydrogen (∼95%) is produced
from fossil fuels by steam reforming of natural
gas, partial oxidation of methane, and coal
gasification.
Other methods of hydrogen production include
biomass gasification and electrolysis of water.
There are four main sources for the commercial
production of hydrogen: natural gas, oil, coal, and
electrolysis; which account for 48%, 30%, 18%
and 4% of the world's hydrogen production
respectively
Fossil fuels are the dominant source of industrial
hydrogen
Steam Reforming
Steam reforming is a hydrogen production process from natural
gas. This method is currently the cheapest source of hydrogen.
For this process high temperature (700–1100°C) steam (H 2O)
reacts with methane in the presence of nickel catalyst.
It is an endothermic reaction.
CH4 + H2O + heat → CO + 3 H2
In a second stage, additional hydrogen is generated through the
lower-temperature, exothermic, water gas shift reaction,
performed at about 360°C:
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 + heat
Essentially, the oxygen (O) atom is stripped from the additional
water (steam) to oxidize CO to CO2. This oxidation also provides
energy to maintain the reaction.
The downside to this process is that its major byproducts are CO,
CO2 and other greenhouse gases.
Depending on the quality of the feedstock (natural gas, rich
gases, naphtha, etc.), one ton of hydrogen produced will also
produce 9 to 12 tons of CO2.
Partial oxidation of methane
Hydrogen production from natural gas or other hydrocarbons is achieved
by partial oxidation.
A fuel-air or fuel-oxygen mixture is partially combusted resulting in a
hydrogen rich syngas.
Hydrogen and carbon monoxide are obtained via the water-gas shift
reaction.
Carbon dioxide can be co-fed to lower the hydrogen to carbon monoxide
ratio.
The partial oxidation reaction occurs when a substoichiometric fuel-air
mixture or fuel-oxygen is partially combusted in a reformer or partial
oxidation reactor. A distinction is made between thermal partial
oxidation (TPOX) and catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX).
The chemical reaction takes the general form:
CnHm + n/2 O2 → n CO + m/2 H2
Idealized examples for heating oil and coal, assuming compositions
C12H24 and C24H12 respectively, are as follows:
C12H24 + 6 O2 → 12 CO + 12 H2
C24H12 + 12 O2 → 24 CO + 6 H2
Coal Gasification
Here hydrogen is produced from coal and coke
The process of coal gasification uses steam and
a carefully controlled concentration of gases to
break molecular bonds in coal and form a
gaseous mix of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
This source of hydrogen is advantageous since
its main product is coal-derived gas which can
be used for fuel.
The gas obtained from coal gasification can later
be used to produce electricity more efficiently
and allow a better capture of greenhouse gases
than the traditional burning of coal.
Electrolysis:
A source of direct current voltage is connected to the
electrodes so that an electric current flows through the
electrolyte from the positive electrode (or anode) to the
negative electrode (or cathode).
As a result the water in the electrolyte solution is
decomposed into hydrogen gas (H2) which is released at the
cathode and oxygen gas (O2) is released at the anode.
KOH solution (electrolyte) is required because water is very
poor conductor of electricity.
Ideally, a voltage of 1.23 volts should be sufficient for the
electrolysis of water at normal temperature and pressure.
The rate of hydrogen production is proportional to the current
strength, a high operating current density is necessary for
economic reasons.
Theoretically, 2.8 kW-hr of electrical energy should produce
one cu.m of hydrogen gas.
Efficiency of this method is around 70–80%
Thermochemical Processes
Thermochemical processes use heat and
chemical reactions to release hydrogen from
organic materials such as fossil fuels and
biomass.
Some thermal processes use the energy in
various resources, such as natural gas, coal,
or biomass, to release hydrogen from their
molecular structure.
In other processes, heat, in combination
with closed-chemical cycles, produces
hydrogen from feedstocks such as water.
Direct Solar Water Splitting
Processes
Direct solar water splitting, or photolytic,
processes use light energy to split water
into hydrogen and oxygen.
These processes are currently in the very
early stages of research but offer long-term
potential for sustainable hydrogen
production with low environmental impact.
Biological Processes
Microbes such as bacteria and microalgae
can produce hydrogen through biological
reactions, using sunlight or organic matter.
These technology pathways are at an
early stage of research, but in the long
term have the potential for sustainable,
low-carbon hydrogen production.
Hydrogen storage methods:
Compressed gas storage (350 to 700 bar)
Chemical storage
Liquid storage (cryogenic storage in vacuum
insulated or super insulated tank)
Line pack system (allowing the pressure in
the transmission or distribution system to
vary)
Underground storage (in depleted oil and gas
fields or in aquifer systems)
Storage as metal hydrides.
