Terrorism

Irfan Waheed Usmani

Outline
• Introduction
• What is terrorism? Definitions
• Problematizing the debate
• The Types of Terrorism
• The Underlying Motives
• Factors Leading to the rise of Terrorism
• Forms/ Manifestations
• The Future of Terrorism
• How to Counter Terrorism?: Suggestions
Introduction
How has it emerged as a Its ominous How has it invited Limitations of the Suspended judgment
menace since the last manifestations belligerent response from counter-terrorism
three decades? the West strategy: its unintended
consequences
(I)Norbie attacks WoT : The instances of the US Unless a holistic approach
(1997/1998) The US invasion of Iraq strategy's failure: (I) is adopted to combat the
(II)9/11; (2003) Afghanistan; (II) the menace, it will linger as a
(III)London Bombing– 7/7 US wars in Afghanistan Middle East… threat to world peace.
and; between 2001 and 2019.. (IV) Pakistan
(IV) Bombay Mayhem highlight/underscore
(2008) are its visible The limitations of military
manifestation. solutions.
Another worrisome Another obvious
aspect is the rise of limitation of the strategy
transnational was that the profound
organisations and their influence of neo-
increasing presence in conservatives who were
regions affected by wars driven by/overwhelmed
and conflicts. by fears of islamophobia
on the US policies for
combating Terrorism.
Introduction(2) Historical flavour
• From which period has it gained popular currency?: Particularly since the
second half of the twentieth century, Irish conflict; Palestinian conflict,
Sinhalese-Tamil conflict in Sri Lanka
• It has taken on new forms over time: aviation terrorism, jacking; suicidal
bombing, cyber-terrorism, and train hijacking
• The 9/11 and subsequent US reaction… has diverted the world’s
attention towards the gravity of the threat.
• The role of globalization in enhancing the outreach of non-state actors
and terrorist groups across the globe. (in terms of increasing the
outreach of the terrorist groups).In the age of globalization, it has
emerged as the most daunting challenge.
Main argument
• […]Terrorism had emerged as a menace to world peace, particularly over
the last three decades. The involvement of non-state actors has further
enhanced the hazardous potential of terrorism. Though the West,
particularly the US, has devised a comprehensive strategy to counter
terrorism, which has found visible manifestations in the form of the War on
Terror(WoT). However, exclusive reliance on the use of force, excessive
force, and other coercive tactics has generally rendered the counter-
terrorism strategy ineffective.[claim+reason+evidence]. As the perpetrators
of terrorism also embrace specific ideologies which cannot be
eradicated/bombed through the use of force. The failure of the strategy
means that the menace can only be combated through holistic solutions.
[acknowledge and response].
Claim Reason Evidence Acknowledgment and
response
/acknowledgement and
response
Terrorism had emerged as involvement of non-state Why has the counter-
a menace to the world actors; terrorism strategy failed
peace+the to yield desired results?
comprehensive strategy
and its limitations+
solution…
1 What is terrorism? Definitions(II)
Wardlaw : One of the most (II) West ‘s point (III) Thomas Schilling the easiest
comprehensive definitions of the definitions
The use or threat of use of violence Terrorism is a deliberate systematic “The use of terror, violence, and
by an individual or a group murder, maiming, and menacing of intimidation to achieve an end.”
whether acting for or in opposition innocent to inspire fear in order to
to established authority when such gain political ends… Terrorism…is
an act is designed to create intrinsically evil , necessarily evil,
extreme anxiety, and/or fear- and wholly evil.
inducing-effects in a target group
larger than the immediate victims
with a purpose of coercing that
group into acceding to the
demands of the perpetrators.
Analysis:
1 What is terrorism? Definitions(II)
A CIA sponsored study: If one narrows the scope of it then
it may be defined as
“the threat of use of violence for (I)“in terrorism, the perpetrators
political purposes when:(I) such deliberately choose non-combatant
action is intended to influence the targets and relatively indiscriminate
attitude and behavior of a target means”…. innocent to inspire fear
group wider than its immediate in order to gain political ends/
victim, and(II) its ramifications ulterior motives.
transcend the national borders”.
(II)
The use or The main
threat of use of motive or
force: by purpose
whom?
On behalf of fear-inducing-
established effects in a
authority or target group
against it? larger than the
immediate
victims.
The second and third definitions:
self-explanatory
Working Definition of Terrorism
Explaining the act Underlying motive / More simple explanation Its ramifications in terrorism, the
intended purpose transcend international perpetrators deliberately
borders. choose non-combatant
targets and relatively
indiscriminate means”
The use or threat of use of such an act is designed (I)to (I) Terrorism is a deliberate
violence by an individual or a create extreme anxiety, and/or systematic… of innocent
group whether acting for or in fear-inducing-effects in a to inspire fear in order
opposition to established (II)target group( governments/ to gain political ends/
authority political parties/ international ulterior motives
communities/ secessionist (II) “the use of terror
movements) larger than the violence and
immediate victims with a intimidation to achieve
purpose of coercing that group an end”…..
into acceding to the demands
of the perpetrators
innocent to inspire fear in
order to gain political ends/
ulterior motives.
Problematizing the debate

• (I) There is no generally accepted definition of Terrorism. One person’s

terrorist is another person’s freedom fighter.
• (II)The changing meaning of the Phenomenon over the decades ( see
the new con
• (III) But now it is being used by a Diverse set of organisations pursuing
different goals..
• Limitations of definitions(see the next slide)
The Limitations of Definitions
• The search for a cause of terrorism ranged from social and political
conditions to theories based on psychology “ the terrorist
personality” and religion.
• Given the variety of forms taken by terrorist phenomena and the
diversity of conditions in which it originated the attempt to arrive at a
consensual definition seems to be a fruitless exercise.
• The one characteristic common to terrorist acts of violence was a
belief, usually mistaken, that individual acts of violence could in some
way accelerate change and achieve goals that other more
conventional forms of political action could not.
Problematizing II: The changing meaning of the
Phenomenon over the decades (I)

1940’s and 1950’s With the completion of Beteem 1980’s and 2001 Post 9/11 era
decolonization
Movements of de- On going conflicts It became more complex; Neo-cons and
colonization … ( Palestine; Irish ; it assumed more complex Islamophobes began to
forms… tag with political and
militant Islam.
Suicidal bombing;
involvement of
transnational actors;
(II) Diverse set of organizations
pursuing different goals..
• It is a term that is applied to a diverse set of organizations pursuing
different (often multiple goals): Hamas, Tamils, Taliban
Drawing Larger Conclusions
• (I) There is no generally accepted definition of Terrorism. One person’s
terrorist is other person’s freedom fighter.
• (II)The changing meaning of the Phenomenon over the decades
• (III) The term terrorism is broad in large measure is context-
dependent it is possible to apply it incorrectly.
The Limitations of definitions
The US state Noam Chomsky The trem terrorism is
department’s Definition broad in large measure is
context-dependant it is
possible to apply it
incorrectly.
Limits the capacity to
generate terror
Recapping the discssion
(NP): Factors Leading to the rise of
Terrorism
• (I) The prevailing injustices in the World system/world order….
• (II) Unresolved international conflicts
• (III)Flaws in the US counter-terrorism strategy
• (IV) The rise of Political Islam/Slogan Mongering of Jehadis
• (V)State authoritarianism and the denial of democratic rights
• (VI) The unintended consequences of Globalization
• (VII)
(I) The prevailing injustices in the
World system/world order
• Poverty; inequality; wars;
• The hegemonic control of world powers in world politics; (regional
hegemon)…
• Neo-liberal economic order
• The haplessness of the UN.
• Burgeoning inequality 386 vs. 2.5 billion people
• The failure of the UN to address the prevailing injustices in the world
order/system/ politics: the failure of international humanitarian law
to prevent the outbreak of conflicts
(II) Unresolved international
conflicts(I)
• (I)Examples:
• (II)Germinating grounds
• (III)Afford the terrorist organisations opportunities for recruitment
(II)Unresolved International
Conflicts(II)
• They provide a germinating ground.
• Examples: hotspots: Palestine; Kashmir; Afghanistan; Uygur militancy;
• Their role in engendering/ escalating terrorism
• What kind of pretext/ opportunities they provide to terrorist groups/
organization
• (I) to propagate their ideology;(II) recruitments; (III) to launch/ carry
out resistance; (IV) justification/rationale to continue their violent
agenda
• Examples: Name the terrorist groups
(III)Flaws in US counter-terrorism
strategy(I)
• (I)The overarching influences: Neo-cons and neo-liberals
• (II) overreliance on use of force:
• (III) Another obvious limitation of the strategy was that the profound
influence of neo-conservatives who were driven by/overwhelmed by
fears of islamophobia on the US policies for combatting Terrorism.
(III) The flaws in US counter-terrorism
regime/mechanism

My analysis Scilla Elworthy

Whimsical There is a direct link between the humiliation and
trauma of occupation, and political violence.
Reliance on use of force In an atmosphere …can offer emotional relief, p.1
The limitations of/ the flaws in US strategy of WoT: Three specific examples…
(I) US unilateralism;(II)Neo-conservative influences;(III)
the influences of neo-orientalists,and;(IV) Bush
doctrine: its inherent flaws
(I)Reaction against the Injustices in the world
system/world order(II):

Poverty Ineffectiveness of UN Dominance of world power and

their vested interests
(IV) The rise of Political Islam/Slogan
Mongering of Jehadis(I)
How the political Their Their narrow The slogan A section of
term came in disillusionment interpretation of mongering of political Islamists
vogue? towards West concept of jehad in Jehadis and the also joined the
Islam unresolved conflicts ranks of/ began to
in the Muslim world collaborate with
allowed them to non-state actors.
expand their
support base
(I) Islamic
fundamentalists
(II) The term was
more value-
loaded( political
Islamists)
(IV) The rise of Political Islam/ slogan-mongering of
Jihadists(II)

Background The role of West in How the US and Saudi How they lost favour of 9/11 and its aftermath
abetting and supporting Arabia used them in the US and It began to
political Islamists during Afghan Jehad(1979— perceive threat from
the Cold war 1991) political Islam /Islamic
fundamentalism after the
end of the Cold war
What were the
conspicuous features of
the US New World Oders
Political Islamists (I) . To establish US They began
Ideological roots: hegemony
Later off-shoots: Hamas; (II) De-nuclaization
Islamic Jehad; Ai-qeada; (III) Containment of
hizb-e-Tahrir; ISIS Islamic
fundamentalism
(IV) Support of regional
hegemons
(V)State authoritarianism and the
denial of democratic rights
Examples The reaction it has evoked?
Countries: Israel; India; China;
Russia; Syria; Myanmar….
(V)State authoritarianism and the
denial of democratic rights
6 The unintended consequences of Globalization

The terrorist groups have used

technology as tool to their
advantage.
(III) The ICT revolution has (IV) Terror-financing
increased the space of the
(I) The increasing incidence of organization to propagate/
inequality / rising incidence of disseminate violent ideologies
inequality. through social media. ( Hizb-ul-
(II) Has led to an increase the Tehrir)
access of terrorist (IV) The technological development
organizations to lethal in ICT has facilitated/ further
weapons and arms enabled the terrorist organizations
to carry out their operations/
missions…
(VI) Globalization as a contributory
factor(I)
Backlash against Globalization Technology has been an engine of globalization
Bourgeoning inequality The terrorist groups have been to use technology for
their advantage.
Exploitation of resources
(NP)The Types of Terrorism

• Transnational Organized Crime

• State Sponsored
• Nationalistic
• Ideological
OR
• The other typology: One popular typology identifies three broad classes of
terrorism:(I) revolutionary,(II) sub-revolutionary, and;(III) establishment.
Although this typology has been criticized as inexhaustive, it provides a useful
framework for understanding and evaluating terrorist activities.( Encyclopedia
Britannica).
Transnational Organized Crime

• Al-Queda; IS;
• Their activities or scope of operation is not confined to a particular
geographical area or boundary.
State Sponsored

• Israel: India; US; Pakistan

Nationalistic

• IRA
• Secessionists movements
Ideological

• Militant Leftists ( Naxalites)

• Islamists: TTP;IS: Hamas
(NP) The Underlying Motives
• (I)Terrorist attacks on civilians are primarily intended to be symbolic.
• (II) It requires an impact beyond those immediately affected by a
violent event.
• (III) Resistance against occupation/ anti-colonial resistance
• (IV) National liberation
• (V) Preservation of ideology
• (VI) May be motivated by ethnic or racial considerations
• (VII) State terrorism
(I)Terrorist attacks on civilians are
primarily intended to be symbolic.
• A terrorist bombs a building not so much because he or she seeks to
kill indiscriminately but because the act will be publicized across the
globe and will draw world attention. ( its effects go beyond the
targeted victim)
• Ward law’s definition: designed to create extreme anxiety, and/or
fear-inducing effects in a target group larger than the immediate
victims to coerce that group into acceding to the demands of the
perpetrators.
• Examples: recent BLA attack on Chinese professors in Karachi
(II) It requires an impact beyond
those immediately affected by a
violent event.
• Target group: governates; US: India
(III) Resistance against occupation/ anti-colonial
resistance

Examples: Mao-Mao (Kenya)

INA (India)
Naujawan Bharat Sabha
Afghan resistance against Soviet and US interventions…
(IV) National liberation

• Palestine
• Sri Lanka: Tamil Tigers
(V) Preservation of ideology

• Taliban
• Leftist groups
• African National Congress (ANC)
(VI) May be motivated by ethnic or racial
considerations

• The Tamil Tigers

(VII) State terrorism
(I) Increasing occupation cost : (II) Abetting secessionist (III) Targeting those elements
through proxy wars movement in another country which are regarded enemies of
state.
US policy against SU India: BLA; Israel's targeting of Hamas’s
leadership.
SU+ China’s support to anti-US Pakistan against india in Kasmir
forces in Vietnam and Korea
Recapping the discussion: What is
your intake on the motives
Conceptualizing terrorism through
the Cycle of Violence
(NP) Forms of Terrorism/ tactics [ the
form terrorism can assume]
The article of Britannica identifies 6 tactics
Hijacking In order to attract and maintain the publicity
necessary to generate widespread fear, terrorists must
engage in increasingly dramatic, violent, and high-
profile attacks. These have included(I) hijackings,(II)
hostage takings,(III) kidnappings, (IV)mass shootings,
(V) car bombings, and, frequently, (VI)
suicide bombings.
Kidnapping
Suicide Terrorism
Aviation Terrorism
Terrorism involving the use of WMD’s
Train hijacking
(NP) Impact on world politics
• (I)How has it invited a belligerent response from the West? In the form of WoT
• (II) Growing islamophobia
• (III) Waning writs of state in conflict-stricken/ hit zones
• (IV) The Western response against terrorism has led to an increase in
Westernophobia among Muslims
• (V) Deterioration in Islam-West relations
• (VI) The failure/ the contradictions in the US counter-terrorism strategy have
contributed towards the further rise in terrorism
• (VII) US targeting of specific countries: sanctions against Iran; US hardline stance
pressurizing tactics against Taliban
• (VII) Sharp deterioration in Pak-India relations
(I)How has it invited belligerent response from the
west? in the form of WoT

• The scope of the war on terror expanded between Aghanistan , Irqa

and Sudan.
(II) Growing islamophobia

• The involvement of Jehadis and their slogan-mongering

• New source of labelling against Islam: when it is tagged with Muslims
it becomes most dangerous reductionism.
(IV) The Western response against terrorism has led
to an increase in Westernophobia among Muslims.
(III) Waning writs of state in conflict-stricken/ hit zones
(IV) The western response against terrorism has led
to the increase in Westrnophobia against Muslims
(V) Deterioration in Islam-West
relations
(I) The US war on (II) Reinforced the (III) The belligerent (IV) The failure of (V)
terror was fears of response of west / model of multi-
profoundly Islamophobes US have re-ignited culturalism in west
influenced by the the fears of
ideas of Bernard westernophobes
Lewis
The theory of clash ▫how the model led
of Civilization: to the development
“Islam has bloody and progress of
borders”. western societies in
the post-world II
Europe; the
countries which
adopted the model
▫the growing
disillusionment
towards the model.
(VI) The failure/ the contradictions in the US US
counter-terrorism strategy have contributed towards
the further rise in terrorism
(VII) US targeting of specific countries: sanctions against
Iran; US hardline stance pressurizing tactics against Taliban
(VII) US targeting of specific countries: sanctions against
Iran; US hardline stance pressurizing tactics against Taliban
(VII) US targeting of specific countries: sanctions against
Iran; US hardline stance pressurizing tactics against Taliban
(VII) Sharp deterioration in Pak-India
relations
(NP) The Future of Terrorism:
• (I)It is going to be a new, unconventional war to confront the international
community
• (II) Problem of marginalization of groups within states and of states within the
system
• (III) Growing cleavages between Muslim immigrants and the indigenous
population in the West
• (III) the rise of the ultra-right in the West/ the more political space for
terrorists within the West for those who harbour deep hatred against
Muslims, non-white population , immigrants
• (IV) The role of Globalization: growing space available to terrorists( examples)
[ it will enhance the access and reach of terrorists to to lethal weapons
(NP): The measures to counter
terrorism and their limitations
• (I) FATF:
• (II) Militarized containment and War on Terror
• (III) Tightening of security laws
• (IV) Preventive Measures
• Their Limitation: They have overtly relied on the use of force.
Howvere there are limitations of use of force.
How to counter-Terrorism?
• In order to counter-terrorism –both “punitive” and “preventive”
measures are suggested
In order to counter-terrorism –both “punitive”
and “preventive” measures are suggested: (I)
Preventive (I)
A strategy: “draining the swamp” (an area of low-lying, uncultivated ground where water collects; a bog or
marsh).
Try to end or eliminate the breeding ground.

In other words: providing economic and social regeneration to those parts of the world which appear to
believe that the acts of suicidal terror hold the key to salvation.
Preventive(II) : An alternative and
complementary approach (engaging in dialogue)
• Is to take more seriously the need to engage in dialogue with the
combatants / who feel deeply aggravated about the situation. such
an account ought to begin with a desire to understand different forms
of life and how mutual respect among them can be achieved.
2 : Punitive/ reactive
Militarized Containment WoT Liberal interventionism
The policy has been used Defenders of Liberal
by UK government in interventionism claim that
Ireland. wars for regime change
Further details: why does are not acts of terrorism
the need of militarized as civilian casualties are
containment arise. unintentional.
Because it is difficult to
convict suspected
terrorists( reasons):
What the British did? The
British government
resorted to the so-called
“Diplock Courts”. (brief
details).
Diplock Courts
• Since 1973, special, non-jury courts have been in operation in
Northern Ire- land to try persons suspected of terrorist Offences; the
so-called " Diplock".
• in Northern Ireland, a court of law designed to try cases linked with
terrorism. In order to prevent the intimidation of jurors, the court
consists of a single judge and no jury
Brief background of Irish conflict

the Troubles, also called Northern Ireland conflict, violent

sectarian conflict from about 1968 to 1998 in Northern Ireland
between the overwhelmingly Protestant unionists (loyalists), who
desired the province to remain part of the United Kingdom, and
the overwhelmingly Roman Catholic nationalists (republicans),
who ...
who wanted Northern Ireland to become part of the
republic of Ireland.
The other major players in the conflict were the
British army, Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), and
Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR; from 1992 called the
Royal Irish Regiment), and their avowed purpose was to
play a peacekeeping role, most prominently between the
nationalist Irish Republican Army (IRA), which viewed
the conflict as a guerrilla war for national independence,
and the unionist paramilitary forces, which
characterized the IRA’s aggression as terrorism.
3 Concerted efforts to choke terror
financing
• FATF:
Limitations of the measures: A
critical view
• (I) More focus has been towards punitive or reactive measures rather
than preventive measures. [Examples: US spending on WoT in
Afghanistan and Iraq].
• (II) The US anti-terrorism regime has been clouded by the fears of
Islamophobia: shrinking space of ideology of multi-culturalism;
ideologically, the agenda has been influenced by neo-conservatives and
neo-orientalists
• (III) Hasty US response: R.B. Rais (specific example): It failed to
differentiate between the Pushtun ethnicity and the Taliban.
• (IV) The agenda tends to overlook the real causes of violence: (hint: link
it to cycle of violence)…
Suggestion:
• (I) It requires holistic solutions: we need to understand the real causes of
terrorism– it should not be looked in isolation. There are other issue
(Islamophobia; extremism; prevailing flaws in the World order/ international
order/;the negative consequences of Globalization).
• (II) One thing should be borne in mind that over-reliance on punitive measures
could prove counter-productive. Judicious blending of preventive and punitive
measures.
• (III) Without understanding the root causes, the issue cannot be addressed on
a long-term basis.
• (V) The flaws in the counter-terror regime should be identified and addressed.
• (IV) add insights from the material that I would provide.
Summing UP: You have to entangle the disentangled threads and end up the debate on
suspended judgement.