Operating Systems: CSE
3204
Chapter One
Introduction to Operating
System
and its
Structures
(Materials partly taken from Operating System Concepts by Silberschatz, Galvin and
Lecture 1: Introduction to Operating Systems
Gagne, 2005 – 7 Edition, chapter 1-2)
th
May 21, 1
2019
Operating ASTU
Systems Department of
CSE
Content
s
• What operating systems
do
• Computer system
structure
• Computer system
organization
• Operating system
operations
• Computing environments
• Operating
May 21, 2019
system-views 2
Operating
• Reading Assignments
Systems
What is an operating
•system?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a
user of a computer and the computer hardware.
• Operating system goals:
• Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier.
• Make the computer system convenient to use.
• Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
• It’s a resource allocator Manages all resources
• Decides between conflicting requests for
efficient and fair
resource use
• It’s a control program
• Controls the execution of programs to prevent
errors and
May 21, 2019 Operating Systems
3 improper use of the computer
Operating System Definition
• (Contd.)
Operating system is the first layer of software loaded
into the computer working memory.
An interface between the user, the computer
software and the hardware resources.
• It provides a software platform on top of which
other program can run.
• “The one program running at all times on the
computer” is the kernel. Everything else is
either a system program (ships with the operating
system) or an application program.
May 21, 2019 Operating
Systems
4
Computer System
structure
Components
of a
computer:
• User
• machine/
person /computer
•Application
programs
• a special
software used to
solve
particular
problems of users
•Operating
system
• Controls and coordinates use
of hardware among various
May 21, 2019 Operating Systems 5
users and applications
•Computer hardware
Computer System
Organization
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through
common bus providing access to shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles
May 21, 2019 Operating
System
Operating 6
Systems
Computer-System
Operation
• I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.
• Each device controller is in charge of a particular
device type.
• Each device controller has a local buffer.
• CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local
buffers
• I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
• Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt.
May 21, Operating
2019 Systems
7
Computer
Startup
• bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or
reboot
• Typically stored in ROM or EEPROM (Electronic
Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory),
generally known as firmware, within the
computer hardware
• Initializes all aspects of the system
• Loads operating system kernel and starts
execution
May 21, Operating
2019 Systems
8
Interrupt
• s
An interruption of the normal sequence of execution
• Improves processing efficiency
• Allows the processor to execute other instructions
while an I/O operation is in progress
• A suspension of a process caused by an event
external to that process and performed in such a way
that the process can be resumed
• Interrupt Handler:
• A program that determines nature of the
interrupt and performs whatever actions are
needed
• Control is transferred to this program
• Generally part of the operating system
May 21, 2019 Operating System
9
Operating
Systems
Common Functions of
• Interrupts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service
routine generally, through the interrupt vector,
which contains the addresses of all the service
routines.
• Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction.
• Incoming interrupts are disabled while another
interrupt is being processed to prevent a lost
interrupt.
• A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused
either by an error or a user request.
• An operating system is interrupt driven.
May 21, Operating
2019 Systems
10
Operating System
Structure
• Multiprogramming is
needed for efficiency
• A single user cannot keep
CPU and I/O
devices busy at all times
• Multiprogramming increases CPU
utilization by organizing jobs (code
and data) so CPU always has one
to execute
• A subset of total jobs in system is
kept in
memory
• One job selected and run via Memory Layout for
job scheduling multiprogramed
• When it has to wait (for I/O for system
May 21, Operating
11
example),
2019
OS switches to another Systems
job
Operating System Structure
(contd.)
•Timesharing (multitasking) is a logical extension of
multiprogramming in which CPU executes jobs by switching
among them
• The switch occurs so frequently that users can interact with
each job
while it is running, creating an interactive computing
• The user gives instruction to the operating system or the
program running using an input device and waits for
immediate result on an output device
Therefore, the response time should be < 1 second
• Since the time a command/action takes in such systems is
short, little
CPU time is needed for each user
This allows many users to share the computer
simultaneously
• Each user has at least one program executing in memory
🢡 Process
• If several jobs ready to run at the same time
🢡 CPU scheduling
• IfMayprocesses
21, 2019
don’t fit in memory, swapping moves themOperating
in Systems
and
12
out to run
• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not
completely in memory
Operating-System
•Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware
• Software (program) error or request creates exception or trap
– Division by zero, request for operating system service
• Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system
• In order to ensure an appropriate execution of operating
system code and
user defined code, most systems provide a hardware support
• Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other
system components
– User mode: execution done on behalf of a user.
– Monitor mode (also kernel mode or system
mode) : execution
done on behalf of operating system.
• Mode bit added to computer hardware to indicate the
current mode: monitor (0) or user (1).
• Some instructions designated as privileged are only
executable in
May 21,
kernel mode Operating
2019 •
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call
Systems
13
resets it to user mode
Transition from User to Kernel
• Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging
resources
• Set interrupt after specific period
• Operating system decrements counter
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
• Set up before scheduling process to regain
control or terminate program that exceeds
allotted time
May 21, Operating
2019 Systems
14
Computing
Environments
• Computing Environment is a collection of
computer hardware, software, machines and
networks that support the processing and interaction
of electronic information to solve different
computational problems.
• There are four basic environment
• Traditional
• Client Server
• Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
• Web-based
May 21, Operating
2019 Systems
15
Computing Environments
(contd.)
• Traditional
• Office environment
• PCs connected to a network, terminals
attached to mainframe or minicomputers
providing batch and timesharing
• Now portals allowing networked and remote
systems access to same resources
• Home networks
• Used to be single system, then modems
• Now firewalled, networked
May 21, 2019
16
Operating
Systems
Computing Environments
• (Cont.)
Client-Server Environment
• Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
• Many systems now servers, responding to requests
generated by clients
Compute-server provides an interface to client to
request services (i.e. database)
File-server provides interface for clients to store and
retrieve files
May 21, Operating
2019 Systems
17
Peer-to-Peer
• Environment
Another model of distributed system
• P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
• Instead all nodes are considered peers
• Each node may act as client, server or both
• Node must join P2P network
• Registers its service with central lookup
service on network, or
• Broadcast request for service and respond to
requests for service via discovery protocol
May 21, Operating
2019 Systems
18
Web Based
Environment
• The Web has become ubiquitous
• PCs most prevalent devices
• More devices becoming networked to allow web
access
• New category of devices to manage web traffic
among similar servers: load balancers
• Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-
side, have evolved into Linux and Windows XP,
which can be clients and servers
May 21, 2019 Operating Systems
19
Special Purpose
Systems
Real-time embedded systems
• These systems have fixed time constraint, so that their operations
should be finished with in that time
•Embedded computers are commonly found everywhere (at home, in
industries, manufacturing robots, care engines, etc)
•They monitor and control devices and usually they have no or little
user interface
•Systems that control scientific experiments, industry processes, home
appliances etc are real-time systems
Multi-media systems
• Handles multimedia data (video, audio) in addition to conventional
data (text files, programs, spreadsheets etc
Hand-held
• Includes personal digital assistants (PDAs) like pocket PCs and
palm PCs and
cellular telephones
•They use special-purpose embedded operating systems
May 21, 2019
20
Operating
Systems
Operating-System
View
There are several points to view Operating
Systems:
• Functional view (what it does)
• Components view (Designers view)
• Services view (Users/Programmers view)
• Structure view (How it is implemented)
May 21, 2019 Operating Systems
21
Functional view (What it
does)
• Program execution and handling
• Starting programs, managing their execution and
communicating their
results.
• I/O operations
• Mechanisms for initiating and managing I/O
• File-system Management
• Creating, maintaining and manipulating files
• Communications
• Between processes of the same user
• Such as sending result of input request to a user program
• Between different users
Functional view
• (…) detection and handling
Exception
• Protection related issues
• Safety in the case of power failures via backups.
• Detecting undesirable state such as printers out of paper.
• Resource allocation
• Includes processor and I/O scheduling, memory
management
• Accounting
• To track users usage of resources for billing and statistical
reasons
• Protection
• Maintaining integrity of user’s data
• Integrity checks to keep out unauthorized users
• Maintaining logs of incorrect attempts
Component view:
•Processes
A process is
• A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work
within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is
an active entity.
• Dynamic entity created by the execution of the program.
• Processes may play different roles
• User processes
• OS (system) processes
• A single process can swap other processes
• A computation requires typically many processes
• Shell, one or more user processes, one or more
system processes
May 21, 24
2019
Operating
Systems
Component view: Process
•management
Operations:
• Creation and termination
• Suspension and resumption
• Due to interrupts, context switches
• Synchronizing processes
• Making sure that a process that is waiting on an
I/O waits till it is completed and does not wait
forever, i.e., wakes-up soon after an I/O process
terminates.
• Communication
• Between two processes enabling them to
cooperate.
•MayDeadlock
2019
21,
detection and avoidance. 25
Operating
Systems
Component view: Storage
• management
Managing main memory
• Allocating main memory to active processes
• Maintaining a map of allocated vs. free memory
• De-allocating currently used memory to make a room
for other
processes.
• Managing secondary storage
• Managing the free sectors/tracks on the disk
• Allocating this storage to programs
• Scheduling access requests to the disk
May 21, 26
2019
Operating
Systems
Component view: I/O
• Management
Devices
• Device drivers
• Accepting an I/O request and invoking appropriate device driver
• Buffering, caching, spooling
• Files
• Non-volatile representation of users/system programs and data.
• File systems
• A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator.
• Support logical organization of data that the user might want to
see
• Map data onto the physical storage devices and orchestrate their
access
and update.
• Operations
• Creation, manipulation and deletion of files and directories
• Moving files from primary to secondary storage while maintaining
structure.
May 21, 27
2019 • Interaction with the memory manager
Operating
Systems • Backup and protection
Component view:
Networking
• Support to communication in a distributed system
• FTP
• http
• Network file system
Component view: Protection
• Controlling the access of programs, processes, or
users to the resources defined by the computer
system.
May 21, 28
2019
Operating
Systems
Services
1. view
Command Interpreters
• User interface between users and the kernel
2. System calls
• Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
• Typically written in high level language like C or C++
• Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Program Interface (API) rather than direct system call
use
• Three most common APIs are
• Win32 API for Windows,
• POSIX API for POSIX-based systems (including virtually
all
versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and
• Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)
3. System programs
• System
May 21, programs provide convenient 29
2019
environment for program
Operating
Systems
execution and development.
Services View
(contd.)
System programs ( contd.)
• Some are user interfaces to system calls; some are more
complex.
• Each system call is usually supported by a system
program.
• They can be divided into:
• File manipulation
• Status information
• File modification
• Programming language support
• Program loading and execution
• Communications
• Application programs
May 21, 30
2019
Operating
Systems
Shell: an OS
• interface
Program that sits on the kernel as an interface
between users and the kernel.
• It is a command interpretor and also has
programming capability of its own
• Interactive access to the OS system calls
• copy from File to File
• Contains a simple programming language
• Popularized by UNIX
• Before UNIX: JCL, OS CLs (command
languages)
• Bourne shell, C shell (csh), Korn shell (ksh),
Bourne-again
May
2019
21, 31
Operatingshell (bash), etc.
Systems
Structure View: Simple
•Structure
MS-DOS – written to
provide the most
functionality in the least
space
• Not divided into
modules
• Although MS-DOS has
some structure, its
interfaces and levels of
functionality are not
well separated
• MSDOS is
vulnerable to errant
May 21, 32
(or malicious)
2019
Operating
Systems programs
Structure View: Layered
• Approach
The operating system is
divided into a number of
layers (levels), each built
on top of lower layers.
The bottom layer (layer
0), is the hardware; the
highest (layer N) is the
user interface.
• With modularity, layers
are selected such that
each uses functions
(operations) and
services
May 21, of only lower- 33
level layers
2019
Operating
Systems
Structure View: Layered
•
Approach
UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX
operating system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS
consists of two separable parts:
• Systems programs
• The kernel
Consists of everything below the system-call
interface and above the physical hardware
Provides the file system, CPU scheduling,
memory management, and other operating-
system functions; a large number of functions
for one level
May 21, 34
2019
Operating
Systems
Structure View: Layered
Approach
UNIX System
May 21,
Structure 35
2019
Operating
Systems
Structure View:
• Microkernel
Moves as much from the kernel into “user” space
• Communication takes place between user
modules using message passing
• Benefits:
• Easier to extend a microkernel
• Easier to port the operating system to new
architectures
• More reliable (less code is running in kernel
mode)
• More secure
• Detriments:
• Performance overhead of user space to kernel
May space
21, communication 36
2019
Operating
Systems
Structure View: Microkernel
(contd.)
Mac OS X
Structure
May 21, 37
2019
Operating
Systems
Structure View:
• Modules
Most modern operating
systems
implement kernel modules
• Uses object-
oriented
approach
• Each core
component is
separate
• Each talks to the others
over known interfaces
• Each is loadable as Solaris Modular
needed Approach
within the kernel
May 21, 38
• 2019
Overall,
Operating similar to layers
but with more flexible
Systems
Structure View: Virtual
•Machines
A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical
conclusion. It treats hardware and the operating system kernel
as though they were all hardware
• A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the
underlying bare hardware
• The operating system creates the illusion of multiple
processes, each executing on its own processor with its
own (virtual) memory
• The resources of the physical computer are shared to create
the virtual
machines
• CPU scheduling can create the appearance that users have
their own processor
• Spooling and a file system can provide virtual card readers
and virtual line printers
• A normal user time-sharing terminal serves as the virtual
May 21, 39
2019machine operator’s console
Operating
Systems
Structure View: Virtual Machines
(contd.)
(a) Non virtual (b) virtual
May 21, machine machine 40
2019
Operating
Systems
Structure View: Virtual Machines
(contd.)
• The virtual-machine concept provides complete
protection of system resources since each virtual
machine is isolated from all other virtual machines. This
isolation, however, permits no direct sharing of
resources.
• A virtual-machine system is a perfect vehicle for
operating- systems research and development.
System development is done on the virtual machine,
instead of on a physical machine and so does not disrupt
normal system operation.
• The virtual machine concept is difficult to implement
due to the effort required to provide an exact duplicate
to the underlying machine
May 21, 41
2019
Operating
Systems
Structure View: Virtual Machines
(contd.)
VMware
May 21,
2019
Architecture 42
Operating
Systems
The Java Virtual
Machine
May 21, 43
2019
Operating
Systems
Reading
[Link]
As discussed in today’s lecture, OS can be viewed from different
perspectives.
Read more about the functional and service views.
2. What are the uses of system calls and system programs. Identify their
different types
3. What is cache memory? Discuss its advantages?
4. Operating system provides helpful services to users which are
categorized in to
two groups:
• User interface, program execution, I/O operation, File-
system Manipulation, Communications, Error
detection
• Resource Allocation, Accounting, Protection and
Security
Study the functions each of the services in the two
categories
5. Read about the following operating systems and list out the major
characteristics of each:
2019
• Serial processing
May 21, 44
Operating • Simple batch systems
Systems
• Multiprogrammed batch systems
Recommended
• Websites
The Operating System Resource Center: A useful collection of
documents and papers on a wide range of operating system
topics.
• Review of Operating Systems: A comprehensive review of
commercial, free, research and hobby operating systems.
• Operating System Technical Comparison: Includes a substantial
amount of information on a variety of operating systems.
• ACM Special Interest Group on Operating Systems:
Information on SIGOPS publications and conferences.
• IEEE Technical Committee on Operating Systems and
Application
Environments: Includes an online newsletter and links to
other sites.
• The comp. os. research FAQ: Lengthy and worthwhile FAQ
covering operating system design issues.
May 21, 45
2019
Operating
Systems
May 21, 2019 Operating
Systems
4
6
