Module 2

Measurement of Power and Energy

DYNAMOMETER TYPE WATTMETER
• The instruments in which the operating field is produced by the
fixed coils are known as electrodynamic or dynamometer
type instruments.
• The instruments in which the operating field is produced by the
fixed coils are known as electrodynamic or dynamometer
type instruments.
Principle
• The basic dynamometer type wattmeter working principle is that
when a current carrying moving coil is placed in the magnetic field
produced by the current carrying fixed coil, a force is exerted on
the coil sides of the moving coil and deflection takes place
Construction
Construction
• A dynamometer type wattmeter essentially consists of two coils called fixed coil
and moving coil. The fixed coil is splitted into two equal parts which are placed
parallel to each other. The two fixed coils are air-cored to avoid hysteresis
effects when used on AC.
• The fixed coil is connected in series with the load and carries the circuit current. It
is, therefore, called current coil. The moving coil is pivoted between the two
parts of the fixed coil and is mounted on the spindle. A pointer is attached to
the spindle which gives deflection. The moving coil is connected in parallel
with the load and carries the current proportional to the voltage. It is,
therefore, called potential coil.
• he controlling torque is provided by springs which also serve the additional
purpose of leading current into and out of the moving coil. Air friction damping
is used
Dynamometer Type Wattmeter
Working
• The current coil is connected in series with the load, carries the load
current and the potential coil, connected in parallel with the load,
carries the current proportional to the voltage across the load.
•The fixed coil produces a field Fm and moving coil produces a field
field Fr tries to come in line with the main field Fm, which produces a
Fdeflecting
.r The torque on the moving coil.
• Thus, the pointer attached to the spindle of the moving coil deflects.
• The deflection is controlled by the controlling torque produced by the
springs.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Dynamometer Type Wattmeter
• Advantages:
• It can be used both on AC and DC circuits.
• It has a uniform scale.
• High degree of accuracy can be obtained by careful design.
• Disadvantages:

• At low power factors, the inductance of the potential coil causes serious errors.
• The reading of the instrument may be affected by stray fields acting on the moving coil.
In order to prevent it, magnetic shielding is provided by enclosing the instrument in an
iron case.
Errors in Dynamometer Type
Wattmeter
• Error due to potential coil inductance: The inductance of the potential coil cause an
error in the reading of the wattmeter.Due to this error wattmeter gives a high reading on
lagging power factor and a low reading on leading power factor
• Error due to power loss in the potential coil or current coil:This is due to some voltage
drop in the current coil or the current taken by the potential coil
• Error due to eddy currents: The alternating field of fixed or current coil induces eddy
currents in the solid metal parts which set up their own magnetic field.This will alter the
magnetic field which poduce defection and hence error is introduced.
• Error due to the stray magnetic field:The dynamometer type wattmeter has the
relatively weak operating field; therefore, stray fields affect the reading of this
instrument considerably and cause serious errors.
Remedy
• Error due to potential coil inductance: high non-inductive resistance connected
in series with the coil swamps, to a great extent, the phasing effect of the
potential coil inductance.
• Error due to power loss in the potential coil or current coil:Additional
compensating winding which is connected in series with the potential coil but is
so placed that it produces a field in opposite direction to that of the current
coils.
• Error due to eddy currents: To reduce this error, the solid metal parts are
removed as far away from the current coil as possible.
• Error due to the stray magnetic field:using iron cases or providing thin iron
shields over the working parts.
Multiplication factor
• wattmeter is constructed such that it read only power on a single scale.
Only single scale will available to read the measured power. In order to
take the accurate reading just we measure the reading and we will
multiple along with factor called multiplication factor. That's depends on
which voltage knob we connected and also the current.

• Multification factor =(voltage range*current range*pf)/Max scale

deflection.
Single phase induction type
energy
•
meter
The basic principle of induction type energy meter is electromagnetic
induction.
• When alternating current flow though two suitably located coils
produces rotating magnetic field which is cut by the metallic
disc suspended near to the coils thus emf induce in the disc
which circulates eddy current
• Interaction of rotating magnetic field and eddy currents, torque
is developed and cause the disc rotate.
Construction
Main parts
• Driving system.
• Moving system.
• Breaking system.
• Recording mechanism.
Driving system
• It consists of two electromagnets, called “shunt” magnet and “series” magnet,
• Series magnet: it consists of a number of U-shaped laminations of silicon steel
together to form a core.A coil of thick wire having a few turns is wounded in
both legs of U-shaped magnet. the coil is known is current coil which is
connected series with load.produce the magnetic field proportional and in
phase with line current I.
Shunt magnet: it consists of number of M-shaped laminations of silicon
steel assembled together to form a core.A coil of thin wire having large number
of turn in wound on central limb of the magnet. this coil is connected across the
load. thus it is excited by current proportional to the supply voltage and known is
potential coil.
Moving system.
• The moving system essentially consists of a light rotating aluminium disk
mounted on a vertical spindle or shaft. The shaft that supports
the aluminium disk is connected by a gear arrangement to the clock
mechanism on the front of the meter to provide information that
consumed energy by the load.
• The time varying (sinusoidal) fluxes produced by shunt and series
magnet induce eddy currents in the aluminium disc.
• The interaction between these two magnetic fields and eddy currents
set up a driving torque in the disc.
•
Braking
system
• Damping of the disk is provided by a small permanent magnet,
located diametrically opposite to the a.c magnets. The disk passes
between the magnet gaps. The movement of rotating disc
through the magnetic field crossing the air gap sets up eddy
currents in the disc that reacts with the magnetic field and
exerts a braking torque.
• By changing the position of the brake magnet or diverting some of
the flux there form, the speed of the rotating disc can be
controlled
Registeri
ng
• The function of recording or registering mechanism is to record
continuously a number on the dial which is proportional to the
revolutions made by the moving system.the no of revolution on
the disc is a measured the electrical
energy passing though the meter.
Working
• When the energy meter is connected in circuit, the current coil carries the load
current and pressure coil carries the current proportional to the supply
voltage.
• The magnetic field produced by series magnetic in phase with the line current
and magnetic field produced by shunt magnet is in quadrature with the
applied voltage.thus, a phase difference exists between the fluxes
produce by the two coils.
• this setup rotating magnetic field which interacts with disc and produce a driving
torque and thus, disc starts rotating.
• the number of revolutions made by the disc depend upon energy passing though
the meter
• the speed of the disc is adjusted by adjusting the position of braking magnet
Errors and Remedies
• 1. Phase and Speed Errors:The phase errors is introduced because the shunt magnet flux does not lag behind the
supply voltage by exactly 90 degree due to some resistance of the coil and iron losses. the angle less slightly less
then 90 degree.Because this errors the torque is not zero at zero power factor of the load. In order to remove this
error, made supply voltage exact 90 degree . this is accomplished by adjusting the position of copper shading
band provided on central limb of the shunt magnet.

2.Frictional Error: This error is introduce due to friction at the rotor bearing and the register mechanism because
of this error is unwanted braking torque acts on the moving system and register less energy then the actual energy
passing though itThis error is compensated by placing two short circuited bands on the outer limbs of the shunt
magnet
3.Creeping error:The slow but continuous rotation of energy meter , which only pressure coil is excited but
no current flow though the current coil is called creeping.this error may be due to excessive friction
compensation, excessive voltage supply and stray magnetic field etc.
In order to prevent creeping on no load , two holes are drilled in the disc on the opposite side of the spindle at
the same radius , this causes sufficient distortion of the field to prevent continuous rotation.
Errors and remedies
• 4. Temperature Error: By changing the temperature , the parameter
of the coils change slightly which introduce a small error in meter.
however , this error negligible small and there is no need to
prevent any means to eliminate the error
• 5. Frequency Error:
Since the energy meter are used normally at fixed frequency,
therefore , they are designed and adjusted to have minimum error
declared supply frequency Which is normally 50 Hz in India.
Two element energy meter
Three element energy meter
• Refer notes
Caliberation of Energy meter
• Calibration involves comparing the energy measured by an energy meter with
a standard instrument
• Calibration can be done either by direct loading or phantom loading.
• In direct loading both the current and pressure coils are fed from the same
supply at rated voltage
• Energy meters of high rating when tested by direct loading would involve large
amount of power
• Such meters are thus tested using phantom loading, wherein the pressure coil
is supplied from rated supply and current coil circuit from a separate low
voltage supply
Direct loading
• The standard chosen here is a wattmeter. Since the wattmeter
measures only the power, it has to be multiplied with time to get the
energy reading. The readings are then compared to find the error
in the energy meter.
• Circuit diagram refer notes
Phantom loading
• When a energy meter is designed for high current loads, it is
uneconomical to arrange such loads for testing purposes as it involves a
considerable waste of time and power. To avoid this problem "phantom”
loading is done.
• In phantom loading, pressure coil is excited from normal supply voltage
and current coil is excited from a separate low voltage supply
• The low impedance of current coil circuit makes it possible to circulate
the required current even with low supply voltage.
• Diagram refer notes
TOD
• Time of Day metering (TOD), also known as Time of Usage (TOU) or
meter
Seasonal Time of Day (SToD), metering involves dividing the day,
month and year into tariff slots and with higher rates at peak load
periods and low tariff rates at off-peak load periods.
Application
• Refer notes