Sampling Theorems- Nyquist
Theorem and Shannon-Hartley
Theorem
McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
Topics
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Theorem (Bit Rate)
Noisy Channel: Shannon-Hartley Theorem
Capacity
Using Both Limits
3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications
is how fast we can send data, in bits per second bps, over
a channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Note
Increasing the levels of a signal
increases the probability of an error
occurring, in other words it reduces the
reliability of the system.
Capacity of a System
• The bit rate of a system increases with an
increase in the number of signal levels we use to
denote a symbol.
• A symbol can consist of a single bit or “n” bits.
• The number of signal levels = 2n.
• As the number of levels goes up, the spacing
between level decreases > increasing the
probability of an error occurring in the presence
of transmission impairments.
Digital Signals
Digital Signals (Cont.)
-1
Nyquist Theorem
• Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit rate of a
transmission system by calculating the bit rate
directly from the number of bits in a symbol (or
signal levels) and the bandwidth of the system
(assuming 2 symbols/per cycle and first
harmonic).
• Nyquist theorem states that for a noiseless
channel:
C = 2 B log22n
C= capacity in bps
B = bandwidth in Hz
Example -2
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Example -3
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a
signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Exercise
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 4500
Hz Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a
signal with eight signal levels (for each level, we send 2
bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Example -4
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with
a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we
need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either
increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64
levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
Exercise
We need to send 300 kbps over a noiseless channel (we
send 2 bits) with a bandwidth of 25 kHz. How many
signal levels do we need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
Shannon’s-Hartley Theorem
Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a system in the presence of noise.
C = B log2(1 + SNR)
Or
where
• C is the channel capacity in bits per second;
• B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz (passband bandwidth in case of
a modulated signal);
• S is the average received signal power over the bandwidth (in case of a
modulated signal, often denoted C, i.e. modulated carrier), measured in
watts (or volts squared);
• N is the average noise or interference power over the bandwidth,
measured in watts (or volts squared); and
• S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or the carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) of
the communication signal to the Gaussian noise interference expressed
as a linear power ratio (not as logarithmic decibels).
Example -5
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value
of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For
this channel the capacity C is calculated as
This means that the capacity of this channel is zero
regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
receive any data through this channel.
Example -6
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a
regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
Example -7
The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels.
Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2
MHz (2 x 106 ). The theoretical channel capacity can be
calculated as
Example -8
For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we
can assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR. In
these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be
simplified to
For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of
the example -7 as:
Example -9
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR
for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate
and signal level?
Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper
limit.
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Example -9(continued)
The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.
For better performance we choose something lower, 4
Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to
find the number of signal levels.
4000000/2000000 = log2 L
2 = log2 L
L = 22
L=4
Note
The Shannon capacity gives us the
upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need.
