• Computer Memory and Storage

• A computer memory refers to the electronic holding place for

instructions and data where the computer's microprocessor
can reach quickly. Computer storage refers to the permanent
computer memory that stores all the data files and
instructions even after the computer system is turned off. The
chapter begins with a brief outlook on memory and its
representation. Next, memory hierarchy along with RAM and
ROM is studied
• The primary memory allows the computer to store
data for immediate manipulation and to keep track of
what is currently being processed. The major limitation
of this type of memory is that it is volatile. It means
that when the power is turned off, the contents of
primary memory are lost forever. Hence, to store the
data permanently, a computer requires some non-
volatile storage medium like a hard disk. This kind of
storage is known as secondary memory. Such
memories store all the data (files) and instructions
(computer programs) even after the power is turned
off. The secondary storage devices have a larger
storage capacity; they are less expensive as compared
to primary storage devices, but slow in comparison.
The memory unit consists of cache memory and
primary memory. Primary memory or main
memory of the computer is used to store the data
and instructions during execution of the
instructions. Random Access Memory (RAM) and
Read Only Memory (ROM) are the primary
memory. In addition to the main memory, there is
another kind of storage device known as the
secondary memory. Secondary memory is non-
volatile and is used for permanent storage of data
and programs. A program or data that has to be
executed is brought into the RAM from the
secondary memory.
 Cache Memory

• The data and instructions that are required during the processing
of data are brought from the secondary storage devices and
stored in the RAM. For processing, it is required that the data
and instructions are accessed from the RAM and stored in the
registers. The time taken to move the data between RAM and
CPU registers is large. This affects the speed of processing of
computer, and results in decreasing the performance of CPU.
• Cache memory is a very high speed memory placed in between
RAM and CPU. Cache memory increases the speed of processing.
• Cache memory is a storage buffer that stores the data that is
used more often, temporarily, and makes them available to CPU
at a fast rate. During processing, CPU first checks cache for the
required data. If data is not found in cache, then it looks in the
RAM for data.
• To access the cache memory, CPU does not have to use the
motherboard’s system bus for data transfer. (The data transfer
speed slows to the motherboard’s capability, when data is passed
through system bus. CPU can process data at a much faster rate
by avoiding the system bus.)
• Cache memory is built into the processor, and may also be located
next to it on a separate chip between the CPU and RAM. Cache
built into the CPU is faster than separate cache, running at the
speed of the microprocessor itself. However, separate cache is
roughly twice as fast as RAM.
• The CPU has a built-in Level 1 (L1) cache and Level 2 (L2) cache, as
shown in Figure. In addition to the built-in L1 and L2 cache, some
CPUs have a separate cache chip on the motherboard. This cache
on the motherboard is called Level 3 (L3) cache. Nowadays, high-
end processor comes with built-in L3 cache, like in Intel core i7.
The L1, L2 and L3 cache store the most recently run instructions,
the next ones and the possible ones, respectively. Typically, CPUs
have cache size varying from 256KB (L1), 6 MB (L2), to 12MB (L3)
cache.
 Illustration of cache memory

• Cache memory is very expensive, so it is smaller

in size. Generally, computers have cache
memory of sizes 256 KB to 2 MB.
 Motherboard
• The motherboard is the part of your computer that wires all of the other
parts together. It is a printed circuit board and includes the CPU and memory.
Every component of your computer connects directly into the motherboard.
It typically includes expansion options for high-end graphic displays and
additional devices. Motherboard specifications are designed around which
CPU your computer uses. For example, if your computer uses an Intel
processor, you need an Intel-compatible.
 Microprocessor

• A processor’s instruction set is a determining factor in its architecture. On the

basis of the instruction set, microprocessors are classified as—Reduced
Instruction Set Computer (RISC), and Complex Instruction Set Computer
(CISC). The x86 instruction set of the original Intel 8086 processor is of the
CISC type. The PCs are based on the x86 instruction set.
• CISC architecture hardwires the processor with complex instructions, which
are difficult to create otherwise using basic instructions. CISC combines the
different instructions into one single CPU.
– CISC has a large instruction set that includes simple and fast instructions for
performing basic tasks, as well as complex instructions that correspond to
statements in the high level language.
– An increased number of instructions (200 to 300) results in a much more complex
processor, requiring millions of transistors.
– Instructions are of variable lengths, using 8, 16 or 32 bits for storage. This results in
the processor’s time being spent in calculating where each instruction begins and
ends.
– With large number of application software programs being written for the processor,
a new processor has to be backwards compatible to the older version of processors.
– AMD and Cyrix are based on CISC.
• RISC has simple, single-cycle instructions, which performs only
basic instructions. RISC architecture does not have hardwired
advanced functions. All high-level language support is done in
the software.
– RISC has fewer instructions and requires fewer transistors, which
results in the reduced manufacturing cost of processor.
– The instruction size is fixed (32 bits). The processor need not spend
time in finding out where each instruction begins and ends.
– RISC architecture has a reduced production cost compared to CISC
processors.
– The instructions, simple in nature, are executed in just one clock cycle,
which speeds up the program execution when compared to CISC
processors.
– RISC processors can handle multiple instructions simultaneously by
processing them in parallel.
– Apple Mac G3 and PowerPC are based on RISC.
 CISC
Complex Instruction Set Computer
• Have a large set of instructions, including
the complex ones.

• Easer programming
• Complicated circuitry of CPU and control
unit.
• Intel Pentium series
 RISC
Reduced Instruction Set Computer
• Have a small set of simple instructions.

• Programming is more difficult and longer

• PowerPC series (Apple Computers)
 Registers
 Fast stand-alone storage locations
that hold data temporarily in CPU.

– PC (Program Counter)
• Keep track of the instruction currently being executed.
• Incremented after execution of the instruction.
– Instruction Register
• Store the instruction currently being executed
– Data Registers
• Hold data before it can be processed
 Memory
• Main memory –
– a collection of storage locations,
– each with a unique identifier called the address.

• Word-
– Data are transferred to and from memory in
groups of bits called words.
– The number of bits that can be stored in one
CPU register in a computer.
 Memory Types
• Main memory –
– a collection of storage locations,
– each with a unique identifier called the address.

• Word-
– Data are transferred to and from memory in
groups of bits called words.
– The number of bits that can be stored in one
CPU register in a computer.
 Memory Types
• ROM (Read Only Memory)
– Nonvolatile
– Written by manufacture
– Hold the booting program
– Categories:
• ROM
• PROM(Programmable ROM)- Write once by user
• EPROM(Erasable PROM)- physical removal and
reinstallation by special device
• EEPROM(Electronically EPROM)- without being
removed from computer
 Main Memory
• Most of the main memory in a general purpose
computer is made up of RAM integrated circuits
chips, but a portion of the memory may be
constructed with ROM chips

• RAM– Random Access memory

– Integated RAM are available in two possible operating
modes, Static and Dynamic
• ROM– Read Only memory
 Random-Access Memory (RAM)
• Static RAM (SRAM)
– Each cell stores bit with a six-transistor circuit.
– Retains value indefinitely, as long as it is kept powered.
– Relatively insensitive to disturbances such as electrical noise.
– Faster (8-16 times faster) and more expensive (8-16 times more expensice as
well) than DRAM.

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

– Each cell stores bit with a capacitor and transistor.
– Value must be refreshed every 10-100 ms.
– Sensitive to disturbances.
– Slower and cheaper than SRAM.
 ROM
• ROM is used for storing programs that are
PERMENTLY resident in the computer and for
tables of constants that do not change in value
once the production of the computer is
completed
• The ROM portion of main memory is needed
for storing an initial program called bootstrap
loader, witch is to start the computer software
operating when power is turned off
 Main Memory
• A RAM chip is better suited for communication
with the CPU if it has one or more control
inputs that select the chip when needed

• The Block diagram of a RAM chip is shown

next slide, the capacity of the memory is 128
words of 8 bits (one byte) per word