Encoding
Data Encoding:
Digital Data Digital Signals,
Digital Data-Analog Signals,
Analog Data- Digital Signals,
Analog Data-Analog Signals
Data can be analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.
Different Conversion Schemes
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
In this section, we see how we can represent
digital data by using digital signals. The
conversion involves three techniques: line
coding, block coding, and scrambling. Line
coding is always needed; block coding and
scrambling may or may not be needed.
4.4
Line Coding
• Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital
data) into a sequence of signals that
denote the 1’s and 0’s.
• For example a high voltage level (+V)
could represent a “1” and a low voltage
level (0 or -V) could represent a “0”.
4.5
Figure 4.1 Line coding and decoding
4.6
Digital to Digital Encoding
Figure 5-3
Types of Digital to Digital Encoding
Figure 4.4 Line coding schemes
4.9
Unipolar
• All signal levels are on one side of the time
axis - either above or below
• NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an
example of this code. The signal level does
not return to zero during a symbol
transmission.
• Scheme is prone to baseline wandering and
DC components. It has no synchronization or
any error detection. It is simple but costly in
power consumption.
4.10
Unipolar Encoding
Bit 0 means down and bit 1 means up
Figure 5-5
Types of Polar Encoding
NRZ-L and NRZ-I Encoding
Nrz-L 0 bit +ve &1 bit –ve
Nrz-I 0 bit no change&1 bit change
RZ Encoding
Change will occur in the middle +ve to zero is bit 1 & -ve to +ve is bit 0
Note
In Manchester and differential
Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.
4.16
Manchester and Diff. Manchester Encoding
Types of Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary
• Code uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to
represent the symbols (note not transitions to
zero as in RZ).
• Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the
other alternates between + & -.
• Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the
“0” symbol is represented by zero voltage and
the “1” symbol alternates between +V and -V.
• Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.
4.19
Alternate Mark Inversion
Bipolar AMI Encoding
Figure 4.9 Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary
4.21
Scrambling
• A scrambling encoding scheme is a method
used in digital communications to randomize
a data sequence, making it less predictable
while preserving the number of bits. It's
especially useful in preventing long sequences
of 0s or 1s which can cause synchronization
problems and signal degradation.
4.22
For example: B8ZS substitutes eight
consecutive zeros with 000VB0VB.
The V stands for violation, it violates the
line encoding rule
B stands for bipolar, it implements the
bipolar line encoding rule
4.23
Two techniques for Scrambling 1) B8ZS(bipolar 8 zeros substituition) and 2) HDB3
(High density bipolar 3 zero)
B8ZS Encoding
When the encoder sees a string of eight 0s, it replaces them with the following 8-bit violation pattern
depending on the polarity of the last 1-bit:
•If the last 1 was positive (+), replace 00000000 with:
000+-0-+
•If the last 1 was negative (-), replace 00000000 with:
000-+0+-
The + and - represent voltage pulses. 0 is no signal. The violation happens because the normal AMI rule
is intentionally broken by repeating the same sign .
High density bipolar 3-zero ,here 4 consecutive zerolevel voltages are replaced with a sequenc
HDB3 Encoding
Figure 4.19 Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique
4.26
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION
Digital data -to-analog Signal conversion is the
process of changing one of the characteristics of an
analog signal based on the information in digital data.
Topics discussed in this section:
Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
5.27
Digital to Analog Conversion (DAC) is the process of converting discrete digital
signals (binary data) into a continuous analog signal. This is necessary because
while computers and digital systems process data in binary (0s and 1s), the real
world is analog — like sound, light, and temperature.
For example: Playing a digital audio file on a speaker involves converting binary samples
into a smooth analog audio waveform.
5.28
Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog conversion
5.29
Figure 5.2 Types of digital-to-analog conversion
5.30
Note
Bit rate is the number of bits per
second. Baud rate is the number of
signal
elements per second.
In the analog transmission of digital
data, the baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.
5.31
5.32
5.33
5.34
Figure 5.4 Implementation of binary ASK
5.35
Figure 5.7 Bandwidth of MFSK used in Example 5.6
5.36
Figure 5.10 Implementation of BASK
5.37
Note
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a
combination of ASK and PSK.
5.38
QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) is a modulation technique that combines
both amplitude and phase modulation to transmit data more efficiently over analog
channels.
In simple terms:
QAM sends multiple bits per symbol by varying both the amplitude and the phase
of a carrier signal.
Figure : QPSK and its implementation
5.39
Presentation topic
Analog to analog conversion
07/14/25
Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of
analog information by an analog signal. One may ask
why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is
already analog. Modulation is needed if the medium is
bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass channel is
available to us.
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
5.41
A modulating signal is the original information signal that we want to transmit over
a communication channel. This is usually a low-frequency signal like:
•Voice (in phone calls)
•Music (in radio)
•Data (from a computer)
•Video (for TV or streaming)
It’s called "modulating" because it modifies (modulates) some property of a carrier
wave (like its amplitude, frequency, or phase) to carry the information over long
distances
Term Meaning
The information you want to
Modulating Signal
send (voice, data, video)
A high-frequency wave used to
Carrier Signal
"carry" the modulating signal
The process of combining the
Modulation
two by modifying the carrier
Figure 5.15 Types of analog-to-analog modulation
5.43
Figure 5.16 Amplitude modulation
5.44
Analog Signal
Analog signals are modified to represent analog data.
Analog-to-analog conversion also called modulation.
Modulation is generally needed when a bandpass channel is
required.
Bandpass is a range of frequencies which are transmitted
through a bandpass filter.
45
07/14/25
Analog to Analog
conversion
Analog to Analog conversion can be done in three ways:
1. Amplitude Modulation
2. Frequency Modulation
3. Phase Modulation
07/14/25
AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
Process of changing the amplitude of high
frequency carrier wave in accordance with
intensity of signal is called AM.
47
07/14/25
FREQUENCY
MODULATION
Frequency modulation (FM), variation of the frequency of
a carrier wave in accordance with the characteristics of a
signal.
07/14/25
PHASE MODULATION
The modulation in which the phase of the carrier wave is
varied according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal keeping amplitude and frequency as
constant.
49
07/14/25
Thanks
Lecture slides by M.A.Rasheed
