CM 152: ELEMENTS OF BUILDING

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 Lecture 2

SUB-STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS

Sept
2015
 SUB-STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
1. FOUNDATIONS
oThe foundation of a building is that
part of it which is in direct contact
with the ground and which transmits
the load of the building to the
ground.

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FOUNDATIONS CONT’D
• Apart from solid rock, the ground on
which a building is founded consists
of soil of one type or another, all of
which are compressible in varying
degrees, so that under the building
load, foundations on such soils will,
to some extent, move in a
downward direction.

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 FOUNDATIONS CONT’D

oThis principle is known as settlement,

mainly due to the consolidation of the
soil particles.

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 FOUNDATIONS CONT’D
oExcessive settlement will result from
overloading the soil to such an extent that
the loaded area of soil shears past the
surrounding soil in what is known as
plastic failure of the soil.

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 FOUNDATIONS CONT’D
There is differential settlement if the
settlement varies at different points under
the building. Also known as distortion or
relative settlement.

The distortion can result in damage to the

building fabric if it’s too great.

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FOUNDATIONS CONT’D

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FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
OF A FOUNDATION
oThe function of a foundation is to
transmit all the dead, superimposed
and wind loads from a building to the
soil on which the building rests in
such a way that uneven settlement of
the structure is limited and failure of
the underlying soil is avoided.

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FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS CONT’D
oTo perform this function efficiently
the foundation must provide in its
design and construction adequate
strength and stability.

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• The strength of a foundation to bear
its load and to resist stresses set up
within it is ensured by the
satisfactory design of the
foundation itself.

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FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS CONT’D

• Its stability depends upon the

behaviour under load of the soil on
which it rests and this is affected
partly by the design of the foundation
and partly by the characteristics of
the soil.

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FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
CONT’D
• It is therefore necessary that in the
design of a foundation attention
should not be paid to only the
nature and strength of the
materials to be used for the
foundation but also, the nature,
strength and likely behaviour under
load of the soils on which the
foundation will rest.
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 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE
OF FOUNDATIONS
• Nature of the superstructure or building

• The loads that are due to the structure or building

• Nature, bearing capacity and shear strength of the

soil (sub soil)

• Nature and compressive strength of the

construction materials.

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 TYPES OF FOUNDATION
• Foundations are invariably made of
concrete, either mass or reinforced,
and range from a simple strip to a
deep, piled foundation.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS CONT’D

• The many forms of foundations

used in building work may be
divided broadly into two:

Shallow foundation; and

Deep foundation

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 TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS CONT’D

• SHALLOW foundations are those

which transfer the load to the soil at
a level close to the lowest floor of the
building.

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TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS CONT’D

• It includes:
The SPREAD FOUNDATIONS: strips,
pads and rafts.

These may be formed at great

depth below ground where there is
a basement.

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• DEEP FOUNDATIONS include piles and
various types of piers which transfer
their loads to the soil at a considerable
distance below the underside of the
building.

• Unless conditions make the use of deep

foundations essential, shallow
foundations are always used as these
are nearly always the cheapest.

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 SPREAD FOUNDATIONS
• Spread foundations made up of
strips, pads and rafts must be
designed so that:
the soil is not over-stressed; and

That the pressure on the soil under

them is equal at all points in order to
avoid unequal settlement under the
actual foundation.

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Strip Foundations
• Consist of a continuous strip, usually
of concrete, formed centrally under
load bearing walls.

• The continuous strip serves as a level

base on which the wall is built.

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Strip foundations Cont’d

• It is of such a width necessary to

spread the load on the foundations
to an area of subsoil capable of
supporting the load without undue
compaction.

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Strip foundations Cont’d

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Strip foundation cont’d
• The width of a concrete strip
foundation depends on the bearing
capacity of the subsoil and the load
on the foundations.

• The grater the bearing capacity of

the subsoil the less the width of the
foundation for the same load.

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 TYPES OF STRIP FOUNDATIONS

a. Wide strip foundations

• Strip foundations on subsoils with
poor bearing capacity, such as soft
sandy clays, need to be considerably
wider than the wall they support.

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 a. Wide strip foundations
• The concrete strip could be as thick
as the projection of the strip on each
side of the wall.

• This results in concrete of

considerable uneconomic thickness
to avoid the danger of failure by
shear.

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• An alternative could be to form a
strip of reinforced concrete,
illustrated in the Figure below, which
could be no more than 150 mm thick.

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• The steel reinforcement is used in the
concrete because concrete is strong
in compression but weak in tension.

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• The downward pressure of the wall above
and the supporting pressure of the soil
below can make the concrete strip bend
upwards at the edges.

• This could create tensile stresses in the

bottom and compressive stresses under
the wall.

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• These opposing pressures will tend to
cause shear cracking.
• There should be a sufficient cover of
concrete below the steel reinforcing
rods to protect them from:
rusting; and
losing strength.

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b. Narrow strip (trench fill)
foundation
• Stiff clay subsoils have good bearing
strength and are subject to seasonal
volume changes.

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• Because of seasonal changes and
the withdrawal of moisture by deep
rooted vegetation it is a good
practice to adopt a foundation
depth of at least 0.9 m to provide a
stable foundation.

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• Clay has good bearing capacity,
hence, the foundation may need to
be a little wider in thickness of the
wall to be supported.

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• It would be laborious and uneconomic to
excavate trenches wide enough to lay
bricks down to the required level of a strip
foundation.

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• The use of a mechanical excavator
to take out the clay down to the
required depth of at least 0.9 m
below is advised.

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• The trenches should be
immediately re-filled with concrete
up to a level just below finished
ground level.

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• The width of the trench is determined by
the width of the excavator bucket
available.
• It should not be less than the minimum
required width of the foundation.

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• Fill the trench with concrete as soon as
possible so that:
The clay bed exposed will not dry out
and shrink; and

The possibility of the sides of the

trench caving in, especially in wet
weather is prevented.

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LIMITATIONS OF STRIP
FOUNDATIONS
• Suitable for buildings up to three
storey or four storey high where
external walls carry the loads

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STEPPED FOUNDATION

Except in certain types of structures

transferring inclined thrusts to the
ground all foundations must bear
horizontally on the soil.

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If strip foundations to a building on a
sloping site are at the same level
throughout, those on the higher side
will be a greater distance below
ground level than the remainder
necessitating deeper trenches and a
greater amount of walling in the soil.

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Stepped foundation cont’d
• There are two ways in which this excessive
building into the soil may be reduced:

By cut-and-fill to provide a horizontal plane off

which to build; the choice of this method will
depend on factors other than foundations such
as the nature of the soil, the plan form of the
building, the proximity of a tip for the spoil, etc.

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Stepped foundation cont’d

By stepping down the slope the

foundations to those walls parallel
to the slope will be as shown in the
figure below.

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PREPARATIONS BEFORE
CASTING
• If the ground is dry, the foundation
trenches have to be wetted down
before the concrete is cast.

• This helps to reduce the absorption of

moisture from the concrete by the
soil.

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• Take care that the sides of the trenches are
also thoroughly wetted.

• After the foundation concrete is mixed, it

has to be transported to the trenches, either
in buckets, headpans or wheelbarrows

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• All transportation of the concrete has
to be done without too much delay or
vibration, as this could lead to

the aggregates becoming separated.

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• If wheelbarrows are used, the paths
should be covered with boards to

reduce vibration and to make it

easier to push the wheelbarrows.

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• It is a good idea to provide a wheel
stop beside the trench.

• This helps to ensure that the concrete

is emptied right in the middle of the
trench and does not take along dust
and dirt from the sides of the trench.

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• The containers in which concrete is
transported should be kept wet, so
that
no concrete sticks to the container
when it is poured.

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 Casting
• The concrete must be cast
systematically so that the compacting
and levelling follow immediately after
it is poured in the trench.

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• The headpan loads or wheelbarrow
loads are deposited in an orderly
way, not just dumped anywhere in
the trench.

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• Do not cast foundation concrete in
sections with spaces in between, as this
can lead to disturbances of the hardening
process when the gap is filled up later.

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• Always start from the far end of the
trench and work your way closer to
the mixing area.

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• Two groups of workers can cast
foundations on different sides of the
building at the same time.

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Compaction
• The concrete must be well
compacted so that
no air voids remain.
• Since foundation concrete has a
rather stiff consistency, to compact it
requires the use of heavy rammers.

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• The concrete is applied in layers no more
than 15 cm deep, and each layer is
compacted with the rammers.

• Pay special attention to compacting the

corners and the outside edges.

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• Stiff concrete should be compacted
until Its surface becomes wet.

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Curing
• If the concrete is disturbed during the
hardening process, serious defects
may be produced.
• Freshly cast concrete must therefore
be covered with empty cement bags,
straw, mats, boards or moist sand to
protect it against:

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The rain, which can wash out the
cement paste, leaving the non-
bound aggregate behind (Fig. 2).

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• The sun, can "burn" the surface of
the concrete, so that although the
concrete looks cured, under the
surface it has not set hard enough.

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• The wind, can dry up the surface,
resulting in cracks due to excessive
dryness and shrinkage: especially
during the harmattan season.

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 Isolated column foundations
• Isolated piers or columns are normally
carried on an independent slab of
concrete, commonly called a pad
foundation.

• The pier or column bears on the centre

of the slab.

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• The area of foundation is
determined by dividing the column
load by the safe bearing capacity of
the soil and its shape is usually a
square.

• Its thickness is governed by the

same considerations as for strip
foundations.

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Raft foundations

• Mainly used where the sub-soil has a

low bearing capacity.

• The building load is spread over as

large an area as is possible by means
of a designed platform or slab.

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• Generally used for higher loads and
prevention of excessive
settlements.

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Types of rafts
• SOLID RAFT
 Set at ground level

Provides the base of floor as well as

the foundation

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Requires reinforcement (mesh)

Solid rafts are mainly suitable for

light weight structures,
domestic, bungalows, etc. or light
industrial buildings such as
warehouses.

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Types of rafts cont’d
SLAB AND BEAM RAFT
• Set at ground level with either
upstand or downstand beam. The
beams are designed and positioned
to carry loads from columns.

• The slab may form part of the floor.

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• If an upstand beam is used the
space can be used for services.

• Upstands are more expensive to

construct because of the extra
formwork required to the beam.

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CELLULAR RAFT

• Constructed below ground level.

• Space made available for
basement
• Mainly used on site with poor
bearing capacity where very
heavy loads are to be carried.

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• COST
Sometimes the walls are formed in
brickwork but not generally on new
work. The principle behind the
theory is that a higher bearing
capacity is reached at greater depths
and the raft floats on the bearing
strata.

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 PIER FOUNDATION
• These are frequently used on made-up
ground where ordinary strip or pad
foundations will often be inadequate to
prevent excessive and unequal
settlement, especially when the fill is
poorly compacted.

• They can be economic up to depths of

about 3.5m to 4.5m.

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• They consist of piers of brick, stone or
mass concrete in excavated pits taken
to the firm natural ground below.

• They are usually square and the size is

dependent on the material used and
the strength of the bearing soil below.

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• The smallest hole in which hand
excavation can be carried out is
about 1m square.

• The foundation size is calculated as

for a column base.

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• When this type of foundation is
used the structure is carried on
reinforced concrete ground beams
spanning between the piers as
shown in the figure below.

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PILE FOUNDATIONS
• A foundation consisting of spread
footing supported at their base is
called a pile foundation.

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• Piles distribute the load of structure
to the soil in contact either by:
friction alone; or
friction combined with bearing at
their ends.

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Suitability of pile foundations

• Pile foundation is suitable under the

following situations :

When the soil is very soft and solid

bed is not available at a reasonable
depth to keep the bearing power
within safe limits;

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When provision of pad and raft
foundations becomes very expensive.

When the structure carries heavy

concentrated loads.

When it is necessary to construct a

building along the sea-shore or river
bed.

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Categories of piles
• Piles are generally classified into two categories :
 According to function, e.g bearing piles, friction piles,
friction-cum bearing piles, batter piles, guide piles, sheet
piles, etc.
 According to composition or material of
construction, e.g timber piles, concrete piles, sand
piles, steel piles, etc.

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Classifying piles according to their
functions
• Bearing piles. The piles rest on hard strata
and act as columns to bear the load of the
structure. These piles are used to bear
vertical loads and transfer the load to the
hard stratum lying underneath.

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• Friction piles. The piles do not rest
on hard strata and bear on frictional
resistance between their outer
surface and the soil in contact. These
piles are used when the soil is soft
and no hard strata available to a
certain depth.

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• The piles are long in length and the
surfaces are roughened
or increases surface area
to increase frictional
resistance.

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• Friction-cum-bearing piles. The
piles rest on hard strata and resist
the structural load partly by bearing
and partly by friction. These piles are
used when bearing capacity of soil
strata lying under them is not
sufficient to resist load of the
structure.

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• Batter piles. The piles are driven
inclined to resist inclined loads.

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Classifying piles according to their
composition

Timber piles.
• The piles made of wood, should be
free from defects, decay, etc and it
should be well seasoned.

• The piles can be circular or square in

cross-section.

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• Top of these piles is provided with
an iron ring to prevent it from
splitting under blows of hammer.

• The bottom is fitted with an iron

shoe to facilitate sinking of piles.

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• These piles are driven by blows of
hammer of a pile driving machine.

• Used for buildings, bridges and

cofferdams but is not recommended
to be used in sea water.

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 Advantages of timber piles:
• Less expensive as timber available can
be used after suitable treatment.
• Can be made longer in lengths by joining
the individual pieces easily.
• Cutting of these piles is easy.
• Can be driven easily with lighter
machinery.

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 Disadvantages :

• The piles deteriorate by action of

water and insects.

• Lesser load bearing capacity.

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Disadvantages :

• A number of small individual units required

to construct long piles; this entails lot of
joining work as such the cost becomes high
in constructing the piles.

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CONCRETE PILES
• The piles are made of cement
concrete, strong, durable and can
bear more load than timber piles.

• They are free from defects and

cannot be attacked by insects, white-
ants, etc.

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• The piles are fire-proof and water-
proof.

• Concrete piles are classified into

two types:
Pre-cast piles.
Cast-in-situ piles.

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 PRE-CAST PILES
• These are R.C.C piles which are
square, circular or octagonal in cross-
section.

• Advantages include high strength

and resistance to decay.

• The construction requires care in

handling and driving to prevent pile
damage.
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 Advantages of Pre-cast Concrete
Piles:
• Best concrete can be prepared by proper
workmanship. Any defect can be repaired
immediately.
• The reinforcement remains in proper
position and does not become displaced.

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• The concrete only withstands loads
after complete curing has taken
place.

• More convenient when driven

through wet conditions.

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• Suitable when part of their length is
to remain exposed.

• Not affected by other additional

forces which act on the piles while
adjacent piles are driven.

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Disadvantages :
• Heavy and difficult to transport.

• Lapping of additional length means

extra cost, labour and energy.

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• Heavier in section to withstand
holding stresses.

• The shocks of driving make them

weaker.

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 Cast-in-situ Piles
• This type of piles is constructed in its
location in a bore hole prepared for
this field.

• The operation consists of boring a

hole, filling it with concrete or steel
reinforcement and concrete.

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 Advantages of Cast-in-situ piles :
• Less wastage of material as exact length
of pile is cast.

• Time spent on curing is saved.

• Can bear heavier loads by improving

their X-sectional profile, eg, pedestial
pile.

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Disadvantages:
• Good quality concrete cannot be
easily obtained due to unusual height
of dumping.

• The reinforcements are liable to get

displaced.

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• They cannot be used under water.

• The green concrete loses strength after

coming in contact with the soil.

• The shells are affected by casting

additional piles adjacent to them.

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Classification of piles cont’d
• Sand piles. The piles consist of sand
filled in bore holes, formed by digging
holes which are then filled with sand
and compacted. Top of the pile is
covered with concrete. Cheap, easily
constructed and only for light loads.

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• Steel piles are of steel section.
Useful where driving conditions are
difficult and other types of piles are
not suitable. Usually used for
building and bridge foundations.
The piles are in form of I, U, H
sections.

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• Steel piles are available in the
following forms.
Steel pin piles
Sheet piles
Disc piles
Screw piles.

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Driving of piles
• The operation of forcing a pile into the
ground without any previous excavation
is called pile driving.
Drop – hammer method;
Steam – hammer method;
Boring;
Screwing;
Water jet method.

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Types of pile construction
• Displacement piles
Displacement piles cause the soil to be
displaced radially as well as vertically
as the pile shaft is driven or jacked
into the ground.

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• Non-displacement piles
With non-displacement piles (or
replacement piles), soil is removed
and the resulting hole filled with
concrete or a precast concrete pile is
dropped into the hole and grouted in.

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Factors influencing choice of
pile
• There are many factors that can
affect the choice of a pile foundation.

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• All factors need to be considered and
their relative importance taken into
account before reaching a final
decision.

Location and type of structure

Ground conditions
Durability
Cost

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Basic requirements of a pile
• It must be a continuous member from
end to end with no breaks or faults in
it.

• It must be of full and adequate cross

section from end to end

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• The outside of pile must be tightly
against or married to the
surrounding load bearing strata,
both on its sides and its base.

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THANK YOU

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