Electric Machine Theory

Dr. A. O. Balogun
Module I
 Synchronous Machines – Intro.
• Unlike induction machines, in synchronous machines the air-gap field and the rotor rotates
at the same speed called the synchronous speed
• In rad/s the synchronous speed is e 2f e
• Synchronous speed in rev/min is N s
• Synchronous machine can either be a synchronous motor or a synchronous generator
• Synchronous machines are mostly used as generators for generating electricity
• Called synchronous generators or alternators
• Like most electric machine, a synchronous machine has got a field and an armatures
• When the field is located on the rotor then the armature must be on the stator. When field is
on the stator the armature must be on rotor
• The field excites the synchronous machine to operate at lagging, leading, or unity power
factor
• Therefore, it can behave like a variable inductor, or capacitor, or resistor
• An unloaded synchronous machine connected to a transmission line is called a synchronous
Classification:
By Field Type: Stationary Field or Revolving Field
• Wound Field Synchronous Machine: Field created by windings. E.g. Salient Pole
Synchronous Generator
• Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine: Field from permanent magnets. E.g:
Interior Permanent Magnet (IPM) Synchronous Machine; Surface Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Machine
• Synchronous Reluctance Machine : No field
By Rotor Construction (Shape)
 Cylindrical or round (non-salient) rotor synchronous machines: Used in high
speed engines e.g. Gas turbines, steam turbines
 Salient pole rotor synchronous machines: Used in low speed engines e.g. in
hydraulic turbines
Fig. 1.1 Basic structure of the three-phase synchronous machine [1]
Construction: Multi-Phase Synchronous Machine
Multi-Phase: 3-Phase; 5-phase; 6-phase;7-phase;9-phase e.t.c.
Stator
 The stator windings of a 3-phase synchronous machine are made from a 3-phase distributed windings
 Just like that of a 3-phase induction machine.
Rotor
Cylindrical or round (non-salient) rotor: For a 3-phase stator windings, the non-salient rotor
winding is made from a single distributed winding for the DC field (Revolving field because field is
on rotor).
 As such, 2 sets of brushes and slip rings are required
 Rotors are usually long with smaller diameters and with 2 or 4 poles
 When field is on stator (stationary filed), a single DC field winding is on the stator and 3-phase
distributed winding (armature winding) is on the rotor.
 As such, 3 sets of brushes and slip rings are required just like those of the rotor of wound rotor
induction machines.
 Non-salient rotor is used for high speed engines

Cont’d
Salient Pole Rotors:
• Have concentrated windings on the rotor
• Non-uniform air-gap
• Used for low speed engines, such as hydroelectric turbine
Fig. 1.2 High-speed cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator [1]
Fig. 1.3 Low-speed salient pole synchronous generator (a) Stator (b) Rotor
[1]
Synchronous Generators
• Synchronous generator is the bedrock of power generating industry
• Just as induction machine is the bedrock of manufacturing industry
• Salient pole synchronous generator will be considered
• Depicted in figs. 1.4 to 1.6
Fig. 1.4

[2]
Fig. 1.5 Typical brushless exciter system [2]
Fig. 1.6 Excitation voltage in synchronous machines [1]
 Cont’d
• The salient pole synchronous machine is excited by connecting a DC power
supply to the terminals of the field windings, which enables If to flow in the
windings, as illustrated in fig. 1.6(a)
• When the current If flows through the rotor field winding, the north and south
magnetic poles are established which creates a sinusoidally distributed flux in the
air-gap [1]
• When the rotor is driven by a prime mover, which can be a wind turbine or hydro
turbine, or diesel/gas engine, or dc motor, or induction motor, a revolving field is
produced in the air-gap.
• The revolving field changes the flux linkage of the armature winding aa’, bb’,
and cc’ (fig. 1.6(a)), and voltages are induced in the armature windings (in the
stator) phase-shifted by 120 electrical degrees, as illustrated in fig. 1.6(b). [1]
The rotor speed ns in rev/min (rpm) is: The excitation voltage is:
120 f E f 4.44 f f NK w
ns 
p
Where p is the number of magnetic poles Where
ϕf – is the flux per pole due to the excitation
The frequency f in Hz is:
current If
ns p
f  N – is the number of conductors (turns) in
120 each phase
Kw – is the winding factor
The rotor speed is synchronous speed ωs
in rad/s is: Flux linkage
2ns
s 
60
The Infinite Bus
The heavy MW synchronous generators are usually used to generate electric
power that are injected into infinite bus systems
The infinite bus is a power grid (network) that has the following fixed:
• Voltage magnitude
• Frequency
• Phase sequence
• Phase angle
Therefore, any generator that must be connected to the infinite bus (grid) must be
synchronized have the same grid conditions as stated above
In Nigeria, the national grid is the infinite bus at 330 kV or 132 kV
330 kV or 132 kV is stepped-down for distribution at 33 kV or 11 kV
33 kV or 11 kV is stepped-down to 400 V (line-line) for domestic loads
 USA Nigeria
330 kV or 132 kV
grid

33 kV USA
Nigeria
11 kV

USA
Nigeria
400 V
Fig. 1.7 Infinite bus systems[1] Domestic loads
At the infinite bus At the synchronous generator’s terminals
van vmCos ( e   eo ) vas vs Cos ( se   seo )
vbn vmCos ( e     eo ) vbs vs Cos ( se     seo )
vcn vmCos ( e     eo ) vcs vs Cos ( se     seo )
where where
2 2
  e et 2f et   se  set 2f set
3 3
Synchronization
 Voltage magnitudes must be equal
vm vs Synchronization can be
 Frequencies at both ends must be equal achieved by a synchroscope
f e  f se or a set of synchronizing
 Phase sequence must be the same lamps
‘an, bn, cn’ and ‘as, bs, cs’
 Phase angle must be the same
 eo  seo
Fig. 1.8 Synchronizing the output of a synchronous generator
with the infinite bus using synchronizing lamps[1]
Voltage magnitudes not the same, but frequency with phase sequence and phase angle the same
• Fig 1.9(a)
• The two sets of phasors rotate at the same frequency
• All the lamps glow at the same intensity
• But voltmeters V1 and V2 do not read the same
• To make the magnitudes equal, If of the generator is adjusted so that V1=V2

Frequencies are not the same, but voltage magnitudes with phase sequence and phase angles
are the same
 Fig 1.9(b)
 The two sets of phasors rotate at the different speeds
 i.e. if f1>f2
 Then the lamps will darken and glow in steps
 To adjust the frequency, the rotor speed is adjusted (by adjusting the speed of the prime mover)
 Adjusting the rotor speed, changes the voltage
Fig. 1.9 Phasor voltages of incoming
generators and infinite bus[1]
Phase sequences are not the same, but voltage magnitudes with frequency and phase angle are the
same
• Fig. 1.9(c)
• The voltages across the lamps are of different magnitudes
• The lamp will glow with different intensities
• The normalize the phase sequences, interchange the connections to two terminals

Phase angle is not the same, but voltage magnitudes with frequency and phase sequence are the same
 The two sets of phasor maintains a steady phase difference and the lamps will glow with the same
intensity
 To adjust the phase angle the frequency of the incoming generator is slightly adjusted until the lamps get
dark for zero phase difference
 At zero phase angle the circuit breaker is closed and the incoming generator is connected to the infinite
bus
 Once the generator is locked into the grid, the speed cannot be changed
 But the real power flow can be changed by changing the real power of the prime mover
 And the reactive power can be changed by adjusting the field current
Reference
• [1] P. C. Sen, “Principles of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics,” John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2nd Edition, 1997.
• [2] Theodore Wildi, “Electrical Power Machine Drives & Power System ,”
Sperika Enterprises, Ltd. and published by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey, 6th Edition, 2006
Module II
Synchronous Motors
• A salient pole synchronous motor is not self starting
• If the field is excited and the armature is connected to the supply, the motor will
not start on its own
• There is a high inertia of the rotor (rotor is heavy)
• The rotor will only vibrate
• The net torque on the rotor in one revolution of the stator field is zero and will
not develop a starting torque
Two methods of starting salient pole synchronous motor are:
• Start with a variable frequency inverter (drive)
• Start as an induction motor
Starting with a Variable frequency Drive (VFD)
• A synchronous motor can be started from standstill (0 rad/s) to the desired speed
by using a variable frequency variable voltage inverter (known as variable
frequency drive)
• The inverter receives its dc voltage from a rectifier that rectifies the ac voltage
supply into dc
• The motor is started at low frequency supply, which makes the stator field rotate
at low speed
• So that the rotor can catch up with the speed of the rotating field
• Afterward the frequency is gradually increased and the rotor is gradually brought
up to the desired speed.
Rectifier Inverter

Fig. 2.1 Starting of a synchronous motor with

a variable frequency drive[1]
Start as an Induction Motor
• Synchronous machines have damper bars or amortisseur windings on the rotors
for damping oscillations that may arise due to load change
• The damper bars or amortisseur windings always produce counter torque to
return the rotor back to synchronous speed once there is a load change that wants
to pull the rotor out of synchronous speed
• When the field on the rotor is left unexcited, the rotor with the aid of damper bars
act like a cage rotor of the squirrel cage induction machine
• The field is usually shunted through a resistor
• When the motor is connected to supply, the rotor runs and tries to catch up with
the speed of the stator field rotating at the synchronous speed
• The shunt resistor gets disconnected from the field and the field gets excited,
making the rotor to catch up with the synchronous speed
Equivalent Circuit Model
• In previous discussions, the synchronous machine has been presented as a
generator and as a motor
• In steady-state, the electrical equivalent model of synchronous machine is
considered
• The field current If produces a field flux ϕf in the air-gap
• The armature (stator) current Ia produces a field flux ϕa
• Part of ϕa is ϕal known as the leakage flux, which links the stator (armature)
windings only and not the rotor (field) windings
• Part of ϕa is ϕar known as the armature reaction flux, which is established in the
air-gap and links with the field windings
• Therefore, air-gap flux ϕr is the resultant flux between ϕar and ϕf
• Each flux component induces a component voltage on the stator windings
• In fig. 2.2(a), ϕar induces Ear, and ϕf induces Ef, while the resultant flux ϕr
induces the resultant voltage Er
Er = Ear + Ef motoring (2.1)
but for generating
Er = –Ear + Ef (2.2)
Ef = Ear + Er (2.3)

• From fig. 2.2(b) Ear lags ϕar (or Ia) by 90o . Therefore Ia lags the phasor Ear by
90o. In (2.3) Ear can be represented by the voltage drop across a reactance Xar.
Therefore
Ef = IajXar + Er (2.4)
• Xar is the armature reaction reactance or the magnetizing reactance, illustrated in fig
2.2(c)
 • If the stator winding resistance Ra
and the leakage inductance Xal are
included, fig 2.2(d) represents the
per-phase equivalent circuit.
• Therefore the synchronous
reactance is:
Xs=Xar+Xal
• And the synchronous impedance
is:
Zs=Ra+jXs

Fig. 2.2 Electrical equivalent circuit of a

synchronous machine [1]
Characterization: Determination of the Synchronous Reactance Xs
• Xs Can be determined by performing two tests – an open-circuit test and a short-
circuit test
Open-Circuit Test
• Drive the synchronous machine at the synchronous speed
• Measure the open circuit terminal voltage Vt (= Ef) as the field current If is
varied ( fig. 2.3(a))
• Plot Ef versus If
• Fig. 2.3 (c) shows the open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of variation of Ef
against If
• In fig. 2.3(c) as the field current is increased, the magnetic circuit shows
saturation effects.
• The linear part of the OCC is called the air-gap line
Short-Circuit Test
• Fig. 2.3(b) gives the circuit arrangement for the short-circuit test
• With the terminals of the phases shorted through connected ammeters, drive the
synchronous machine is at synchronous speed
• Vary the field current If and take the average readings of the three measured
armature currents (Ia)
• Plot the variation of the armature current Ia versus the field current If on the same
OCC plot as shown in fig. 2.3(c)
• The variation of the armature current Ia against the field current If gives the
short-circuit characteristics (SCC)
• Notice that the SCC is a straight line because under short circuit condition the
magnetic circuit does not saturate because the air-gap field remains at a low level.
Fig. 2.3 Open-circuit and short-circuit characteristics (a) Circuit for open-circuit test (b) Circuit for
short-circuit test (c) Characteristics [1]
The reason magnetic circuit does not saturate:
• Fig 2.4(a) illustrates the shorted terminals
• Usually, Ra << Xs. As such, armature current Ia lags excitation voltage Ef by about 90o.
• The armature reaction mmf Fa, therefore, opposes field mmf Ff, with a resultant mmf Fr that is
very small, as indicated in fig. 2.4(b)
• Hence magnetic circuit remains unsaturated when both Ia and If are large

Fig. 2.2 Short circuit connection

of a synchronous generator [1]
Unsaturated Synchronous Reactance
• This is obtained from the air-gap line voltage and short-circuit current of the
machine
• From fig. 2.3(c)
Zs(unsat) = Eda/Iba = Ra+jXs(unsat) (2.5)

• If Ra is neglected
Xs(unsat) = Eda/Iba (2.6)
Saturated Synchronous Reactance
• Before connecting a synchronous generator into an infinite bus, its excitation
voltage is raised to the rated value.
• From fig 2.3(c)
Eca = rated Vt (2.7)

• The machine operates at some saturation level

• When connected to the infinite bus its terminal voltage remains the same at the
bus value
• Changing the field current changes the field voltage but not along the OCC line.
• As such, the excitation voltage will change along 0c, which is the modified air-
gap line
• The modified air-gap line represents the same magnetic saturation level as that
corresponding to the operating point c
• From fig 2.2(d)
Er = Vt + Ia(Ra+jXal) (2.8)
• If the drop across Ra and Xal is ignored
Er = Vt (2.9)
• Since Vt is constant, the air-gap line remains unchanged as the field current is
changed.
• As such, the air-gap flux level (i.e. magnetic saturation level) remains practically
unchanged
• Therefore, as If is changed Ef will change along the line 0c of Fig 2.3(c)
• The saturated synchronous reactance at the rated voltage is obtained as follows:
Zs(sat) = Eca/Iba = Ra+jXs(sat) (2.10)
• If Ra is neglected
X = E /I (2.11)
Assignment
• Read up Section 6.4.2 on PHASOR DIAGRAM
• Rework Example 6.2
III
Power and Torque Characteristics
• At steady-state, a synchronous generator connected to a fixed-voltage bus operates at a constant
synchronous speed
• A synchronous generator can deliver a limited power to the infinite bus without losing
synchronism
• Likewise, the torque that a synchronous motor can deliver is limited without losing
synchronism
• Therefore, beyond such limits in power and torque the synchronous generator and motor
respectively will lose synchronism
• From fig 3.1, Vt isothe constant bus voltage/phase and considered the reference phasor
Vt  Vt 0 (3.1)
E f  E f  (3.2)
𝑍 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑗 𝑋 𝑠 =|𝑍 𝑠|∠ 𝜃 𝑠 (3.3)

/P
𝑃 𝑚 =𝜔 𝑚 𝑇 𝑚
Fig. 3.1 Per phase equivalent circuit [1]
• The complex power of the synchronous generator in per phase is
S Vt I a* (3.4)
I a* is the conjugate of I a
The conjugate of Ia in (3.4) conforms to the convention that lagging reactive power
is positive and leading reactive power is negative as illustrated in fig 3.2
*
E f  Vt E *f
Vt * Ef   Vt 0
I a*   * * 
Zs Zs Zs Zs   s Zs   s
Ef Vt
 ( s   )   s (3.5)
Zs Zs
As such,
2
Vt E f Vt
S ( s   )   s VA / phase (3.6)
Zs Zs
Fig. 3.2 Complex power phasor [1]
• Therefore, the real (active) power P and reactive power Q respectively are given
as follows:
2
Vt E f Vt
P cos( s   )  cos  s Watt / phase (3.7)
Zs Zs
2
Vt E f Vt
Q sin( s   )  sin  s VAR / phase (3.8)
Zs Zs

• If Ra is neglected, then Zs = Xs and θs = 90o

• Therefore in three-phase
3 Vt E f 3 Vt E f
P3  sin  Pmax sin  Watt (3.9) where Pmax  (3.10)
Xs Xs
2
3 Vt E f 3 Vt
Q 3  cos   VAR (3.11)
Xs Xs
• The developed torque is
P3
T (3.12)
 syn
• Therefore, 2nsyn
 syn  (3.16)
60
3 Vt E f
T sin  (3.13)
 syn X s
nsyn is the synchronous speed in rpm
T Tmax sin  N .m (3.14)
• Where
3 Vt E f Pmax
Tmax   (3.15)
 syn X s  syn
• Fig 3.3 illustrates that equations (3.9) and (3.14) for power and torque
respectively vary sinusoidally with the angle δ
• The machine can be loaded gradually up to the limit of Pmax or Tmax, known as
static stability limits
• If δ > 90o, then the machine loses synchronism
• Tmax is called pull-out torque
• Since Vt is constant, Tmax can be increased by increasing EF

Fig. 3.3 Power and torque-angle characteristics[1]

• If a synchronous motor tends to pull out of synchronism because of excessive
load torque, then the field current If is increased to develop high toque to
prevent loss of synchronism
• Similarly, for a synchronous generator, if there is excessive mechanical torque
from the prime mover in driving the machine to synchronous speed, then the
field current If is increased to produce more counter torque to oppose such
tendency.
• As speed is constant in a synchronous machine, the torque-speed line is a
straight line parallel to the torque axis, shown in fig. 3.4

Fig. 3.4 Torque-speed characteristics[1]

Complex Power Locus
• Recall equations (3.9) and (3.11)
3 Vt E f
P3  sin  Pmax sin  Watt (3.9)
Xs
2
3 Vt E f 3 Vt
Q 3  cos   VAR (3.11)
Xs Xs
• In per phase, (3.9) and (3.11) are used
to create the complex S-plane in fig. 3.5
• The locus will be a circle of radius |Vt||Ef|/|Xs|
Fig. 3.5 Complex power locus per phase[1]
with centre at 0, - |Vt|2/|Xs|
• For an operating point δ, the power angle and power factor ϕ are shown in fig
3.5
Capability Curves
• A synchronous machine cannot be operated at all points inside the locus bound by
the circle of fig. 3.5 without exceeding the machine’s rating
• The region of operation is limited by:
 Armature heating, determined by armature current
Field heating, determined by field current
Steady-state stability limit
• The shaded area bound by the 3 capability
curves restricts the region of operation for
synchronous machines.
• The intersections M (for generator) and N
(for motor)of the armature heating and field
heating curves gives the optimal operating points
• Operating at these points makes maximum Fig. 3.5 Capability curves [1]
Power Factor Control
• Power factor of a synchronous machine can be controlled by regulating its field
current
• Synchronous machine can operate at leading, lagging, and unity power factor
• For a three-phase machine, the output power is:
P 3Vt I a cos  (3.12)
• The equivalent circuit of the synchronous machine with stator resistance neglected
is shown in fig. 3.6(a). Shown in fig 3.6(b) is the phasor diagram for the machine
• In equation (3.12), since Vt is constant, for constant power operation |Iacosϕ| is
constant. As such, in fig 3.6(b) the locus of the stator current in perpendicular to
the phasor of Vt
I a I a1 Lagging Vt (3.13)
I a I a 2 In phase with Vt (3.14)
I a I a 3 Leading Vt (3.15)
• In motoring,
E f Vt  jI a X s (3.16)
• With a power
Vt E f
P 3 sin  (3.17)
Xs
• Similarly, for constant power operation |Ef sinδ| is constant.
• As such, the locus of Ef is straight line parallel to the phasor Vt in fig 3.6 (b)
• Ef changes linearly with If
• Therefore, changing If changes Ef along the locus of Ef and Ia also changes
along the locus of Ia
• This changes the power factor angle ϕ
Low field current – Underexcitation
• (Ef = Ef1)
• Ia = Ia1, stator current is large
• Lagging stator power factor (Motor)
• Leading stator power factor (Generator)

Normal excitation
• (Ef = Ef2)
• Stator current is minimum
• Unity stator power factor

Large field current – Overexcitation

• (Ef = Ef3)
• Ia = Ia3, stator current is large
• Leading stator power factor (motor)
 Variation of the stator
current against the
field current is
shown in fig 3.6(c)
for motoring
Known as V-curve
The V-curves for
Generating are
shown in fig. 3.7

Fig. 3.6 Power factor characteristics (a) Equivalent circuit

(b) Phasor diagram (c) Variation of Ia and PF with If [1]
Fig. 3.7 Typical form of synchronous generator V
curves [2]
Assignment
• Rework Example 6.6
Reference
• [1] P. C. Sen, “Principles of Electrical Machines and Power Electronics,” John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2nd Edition, 1997.
• [2] A. E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S. D. Umans “Electric Machinery,”
McGraw-Hill, New york, 6th Edition, 2003