R1 Exam Preparation
Shimadzu Academy Asia Pacific (SAAP)
Shimadzu (Asia Pacific) Pte Ltd (Singapore)
Contents
Introduction
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Introduction
• Different type radiation
• Two categories
o Ionising radiation < 100nm
X-ray gamma rays
o Non-ionizing radiation >100nm
o Microwaves , radiawaves
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Introduction
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What is Ionisation ?
• Ionisation happens when an atom loses or gains an electron, forming ions.
• In the case of ionising radiation:
– An electron in the inner shell of an atom absorbs enough energy (from X-
rays, gamma rays, or other ionising radiation).
– This energy allows the electron to escape the pull of the nucleus (like
breaking free from gravity).
• When the electron escapes, the atom is left with:
– One positive ion (the atom missing an electron),
– One free negative ion (the ejected electron).
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What is Characteristic Radiation ?
• After the inner electron is ejected:
– There's now a "hole" in the inner shell (a vacancy).
– An electron from a higher energy shell (outer shell) falls down to fill the
vacancy.
– When it drops to a lower energy level, it releases energy in the form of X-ray
radiation.
• This released X-ray is called “characteristic radiation” because:
• The energy of the X-ray depends on the specific element and the difference in
energy levels involved.
• It’s "characteristic" (unique) for each type of atom.
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Ionising Radiation ?
• What is Ionising Radiation?
– Ionising radiation causes atoms to lose electrons, forming ions as it passes
through matter.
• Types of Ionising Radiation:
– Alpha (α) Particles – Emitted from unstable nuclei.
– Beta (β) Particles – Emitted during radioactive decay.
– Gamma (γ) Rays – High-energy rays from the nucleus.
– X-rays – Produced when high-speed electrons decelerate in the electric
field of a target nucleus (e.g. in x-ray machines).
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Ionising Radiation ?
• Sources:
– Radioactive materials: Emit α, β, and γ continuously (cannot be turned off).
– X-ray machines: Emit x-rays only when energized (can be switched off).
• Penetration & Shielding:
Radiation Type Stopped By
Alpha (α) Sheet of paper or few cm of air
Beta (β) ~1 cm of plastic
Gamma (γ) / X-rays Lead (thickness depends on energy)
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Ionising Radiation ?
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Radioactive Activity and Decay
• What is Activity?
– The activity of a radionuclide measures how radioactive a substance is.
– It refers to the number of nuclear disintegrations per second.
• Unit of Activity:
– Becquerel (Bq)
– Bq = 1 disintegration per second
• Activity of a radioactive material
The greater the value of lamda, the greater the probability of decay and the smaller the activity of the radioactive
material after a given time.
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Half-life of Radioactive Substances
•Definition:
The half-life (T½) is the time required for the activity of a radioactive
substance to reduce to half of its initial value
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Half-life of Radioactive Substances
The old unit for activity is the curie (Ci).
1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per sec.
= 3.7 x 1010 Bq
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Equivalent Dose
•Why It Matters:
Different types of radiation cause different levels of biological damage, even at
the same absorbed dose.
•Example:
• 1 unit of absorbed alpha radiation is much more harmful than 1 unit of beta
radiation.
Equivalent Dose (H)=Absorbed Dose (D)×Radiation Weighting Factor (WR)
• The unit of equivalent dose is the sievert (Sv) •1 sievert (Sv) = 100 rem (old unit)
•1 millisievert (mSv) = 0.001 Sv
•1 microsievert (µSv) = 0.000001 Sv
•10 µSv = 1 mrem
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Equivalent Dose
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Factor Affect Radiation Dose
Factor Impact
Activity (Bq) More disintegrations → higher dose
Distance Dose decreases with distance
Shielding Reduces radiation exposure
Exposure Time Longer time → higher dose
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Effective Dose
• The effective dose accounts for the varying sensitivity of different tissues and
organs to radiation.
• It is the sum of the equivalent doses, each multiplied by a tissue weighting
factor (ωT).
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Equivalent Dose
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Biological Effects of Ionising Radiation
• Radiation = Energy
When radiation passes through matter (e.g., the human body), part of its energy is
absorbed.
• What Happens Next?
• Ionisation occurs: atoms or molecules lose electrons
• This leads to the formation of free radicals – highly reactive species
• Free radicals cause chemical changes in cells and tissues
• These changes may lead to biological damage
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Biological Effects of Ionising Radiation
Possible Outcomes:
•Low Exposure:
The body can repair the damage
→ No apparent effects
•High or Prolonged Exposure:
The damage may be permanent
→ Health risks increase
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Types of Biological Effects
Somatic Effects Genetic Effects
• Damage appears in the exposed individual • Damage affects germ cells (sperm or egg)
• Can include: • Effects are seen in the offspring of the exposed
• Skin burns individual
• Radiation sickness • Can cause:
• Cancer • Birth defects
• Cataracts • Hereditary mutations
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Somatic Effects (Acute Effect)
Acute Effects (Deterministic / Non-Stochastic
Common Acute Symptoms:
Effects)
• Skin burns
• Cause:
• Nausea, vomiting
High radiation dose over a short period
• Drop in white blood cell (lymphocyte) count
• Characteristics:
• Radiation sickness
• Have a threshold dose
• Death (in severe cases)
• Severity increases with increasing dose
• Effects are predictable and dose-dependent
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Somatic Effects (Acute Effect)
Effect on
Radiation Dose
Lymphocyte Count
Drops to ~60% within
~1 Sv 5 days, recovers to
~90% in 40 days
Drops to <30%,
>2–3 Sv slower and partial
recovery
Lethal Dose (LD50/60):
•LD₅₀/₆₀: Dose with 50% chance of death in
60 days
•Typically between 4–6 Sv depending on
medical care
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Somatic Effects (Genetic Effects)
• Radiation can damage reproductive cells (sperm or ovum), Outcomes of Genetic Mutation:
causing genetic mutations. • Lethal mutation: Abortion or
• These mutations may be passed on to future generations, even stillbirth
if the parent shows no symptoms. • Non-lethal mutation:
• How Genetic Damage Occurs: Physical/mental malformations or
• Radiation alters the structure of genes in reproductive cells. hereditary conditions
• The mutated gene may:
• Self-repair inaccurately, leading to a permanent mutation
• Be passed to offspring during reproduction
Parent Genes Effect on Offspring
One mutated + one normal Often no visible effect (mutation is recessive)
Possible lethal mutation, birth defect, or congenital
Both parents carry same mutation
disorder
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Occupational Exposure Limits (ICRP & Radiation Protection Regulations 2023)
Two Main Categories:
Category Definition
(a) Occupationally Exposed Workers Adults exposed during the course of their work
(b) Members of the Public General population, not occupationally exposed
Dose Limits Summary
Annual Effective Dose
Group 5-Year Average Limit Remarks
Limit
≤ 50 mSv in any single 20 mSv/year, averaged Prevent deterministic
Occupational Workers
year over 5 years effects
Higher in one year
Same ALARA principle
Public Generally ≤ 1 mSv/year allowed if avg ≤ 1
applies
mSv/year
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Occupational Exposure Limits (ICRP & Radiation Protection Regulations 2023)
• Key Principles:
• No threshold for stochastic effects → aim is to reduce exposure as much as possible
• ALARA Principle applies
• Women & Pregnancy Consideration
Condition Requirement
Not pregnant Same dose limits as male workers
Work conditions must be adjusted to protect the
Pregnant or breastfeeding (upon notification)
foetus/infant at the public dose limit level
Item Details
Exclusions from dose limits Natural background radiation, medical exposure
Typical medical exposure ~500 µSv/year
Must be justified – benefit must outweigh radiation
Medical exposure policy
risk; consider alternatives without ionising radiation
Protection principle ALARA – As Low As Reasonably Achievable
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ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable)
• ALARA is a fundamental principle in radiation protection. It means that radiation exposure should
be kept as low as reasonably achievable, taking into account economic and social factors, even if
the dose is below the legal limit.
• Why ALARA?
There is no known threshold for stochastic effects like cancer. This means any exposure to
ionising radiation carries some risk. Therefore, radiation doses should always be minimized.
• How to Apply ALARA:
[Link] – Minimize the time spent near radiation sources.
[Link] – Increase distance from the source (radiation intensity decreases with distance).
[Link] – Use protective barriers like lead aprons or walls to block or reduce radiation.
[Link] Practices – Use remote handling tools, plan procedures carefully, and monitor exposure.
[Link] – Only perform radiation-related tasks when the benefits outweigh the risks.
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Control of Exposure from External Sources
1. Distance
• Principle: Radiation dose is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source.
• Example: Doubling the distance reduces the dose to one-quarter.
• Action: Stay as far away as practically possible from the radiation source.
2. Shielding
• Principle: Radiation can be attenuated (weakened) or scattered by shielding materials.
• Shield Types:
• Alpha particles: Blocked by paper or a few cm of air.
• Beta particles: Stopped by a few cm of perspex.
• Gamma/X-rays:
• Low energy: Use lead or other high atomic number materials (Photoelectric effect dominant).
• High energy: Use high-density concrete (Compton effect dominant).
3. Time
Principle: Dose received is directly proportional to time spent near the source.
Action: Work quickly and efficiently. Avoid unnecessary delays or distractions, but don’t rush to the point of error.
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Control of exposure from internal sources
1. External vs Internal Exposure
• Sealed radioactive sources: Mainly cause external radiation exposure.
• Unsealed radioactive sources: Can cause both external and internal
irradiation.
• Internal exposure occurs when radioactive material enters the body via:
• Inhalation
• Ingestion
• Skin absorption (especially through cuts or sores)
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Control of exposure from internal sources
2. Organ-specific Uptake
• Some radionuclides accumulate in specific organs, causing high localized doses:
• Iodine-131 (I-131): Concentrates in the thyroid
• Strontium-90 (Sr-90): Concentrates in the bones
• Once inside the body, radionuclides undergo:
• Biological half-life: Time for the body to eliminate half of the substance
biologically.
• Radioactive half-life: Time for half of the radioactive atoms to decay.
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Control of exposure from internal sources
3. Precautions When Handling Unsealed Sources
• Prevent contamination of work areas and avoid inhalation or ingestion.
• Work in adequately ventilated radioisotope labs with suitable decontamination facilities.
• Perform all operations that may generate aerosols, smoke, or vapors inside a fume cupboard.
• Strict prohibitions inside the lab:
• No eating, drinking, smoking, or applying cosmetics.
• Always wash hands thoroughly before leaving the lab.
• Wear protective clothing (e.g., lab coats), which must not be worn outside the lab.
• After work, the area must be checked for radioactive contamination and decontaminated
immediately if contamination is found.
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Control of exposure from internal sources
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Equivalent Dose
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Equivalent Dose
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Equivalent Dose
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Equivalent Dose
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Equivalent Dose
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Equivalent Dose
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Equivalent Dose
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Any Questions?
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