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ANALOG COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS

Dr Solomon Nsor-
Anabiah
0206495677
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ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

UNIT- I: Introduction: Elements of communication systems, Information, Messages and
Signals, Modulation, Modulation Methods, Modulation Benefits and Applications.
Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation: Baseband and carrier communication,
Amplitude Modulation (AM), Rectifier communication,Amplitude Modulation (AM),
Rectifier detector, Envelope detector, Double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)

modulation & its demodulation, Switching modulators, Ring modulator, Balanced modulator,
Frequency mixer, sideband and carrier power of AM, Generation of AM signals, Quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM), Single sideband (SSB) transmission, Time domain
representation of SSB signals & their demodulation schemes (with carrier, and suppressed
carrier), Generation of SSB signals, Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulator & demodulator,
Illustrative Problems.
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UNIT- II
Angle Modulation &Demodulation: Concept of instantaneous frequency, Generalized concept of angle
modulation, Bandwidth of angle modulated waves – Narrow band frequency modulation (NBFM); and Wide
band FM (WBFM), Phase modulation, Verification of Frequency modulation bandwidth relationship, Features
of angle modulation, Generation of FM waves – Indirect method, Direct generation; Demodulation of FM,
Bandpass limiter, Practical frequency demodulators, Small error analysis, Pre-emphasis, & De-emphasis
filters, FM receiver, FM Capture Effect,. Carrier Acquisition- phased locked loop (PLL), Costas loop,
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM), and Super-heterodyne AM receiver, Illustrative Problems.

UNIT- III
Noise in Communication Systems: Types of noise, Time domain representation of narrowband noise, Filtered
white noise, Quadrature representation of narrowband noise, Envelope of narrowband noise plus sine wave,
Signal to noise ratio & probability of error, Noise equivalent bandwidth, Effective noise temperature, and
Noise figure, Baseband systems with channel noise, Performance analysis (i.e. finding SNR expression) of
AM, DSB-SC, SSB-SC, FM, PM in the presence of noise, Illustrative Problems.

UNIT- IV
Analog pulse modulation schemes: Pulse amplitude modulation – Natural sampling, flat top sampling and
Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) & demodulation, Pulse-Time Modulation – Pulse Duration and Pulse
Position modulations, and demodulation schemes, PPM spectral analysis, Illustrative Problems.
Radio Receiver measurements: Sensitivity, Selectivity, and fidelity.
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UNIT- V
Information & Channel Capacity: Introduction, Information content of message, Entropy, Entropy of
symbols in long independent and dependent sequences, Entropy and information rate of Markoff
sources, Shannon’s encoding algorithm, Discrete communication channels, Rate of information over a
discrete channel, Capacity of discrete memoryless channels, Discrete channels with memory, Shannon –
Hartley theorem and its implications, Illustrative problems.

Text books:
1. B. P. Lathi, “Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems,” Oxford Univ.
press, 3rd Edition, 2006.
2. Sham Shanmugam, “Digital and Analog Communication Systems”, Wiley-India
edition, 2006.
3.A. Bruce Carlson, & Paul B. Crilly, “Communication Systems – An Introduction to Signals & Noise
in Electrical Communication”, McGraw-Hill International Edition, 5th Edition, 2010.
References:
4. Simon Haykin, “Communication Systems”, Wiley-India edition, 3rd edition, 2010.
5. Herbert Taub& Donald L Schilling, “Principles of Communication Systems”, Tata
McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition, 2009.
3. R.E. Ziemer& W.H. Tranter, “Principles of Communication-Systems Modulation &
Noise”, Jaico Publishing House, 2001.
4.George Kennedy and Bernard Davis, “Electronics & Communication System”, TMH, 2004.
 Introducti
on
Elements of Communication System:
Communication: It is the process of conveying or transferring information
from one point to another.
(Or)
It is the process of establishing connection or link between two points for
information exchange.
 Elements of Communication
System:
Information source:
The message or information to be communicated originates in
information source.
Message can be words, group of words, code, data, symbols, signals etc.
Transmitter :
The objective of the transmitter block is to collect the incoming message
signal and modify it in a suitable fashion (if needed), such that, it can be
transmitted via the chosen channel to the receiving point.
 Elements of Communication
System:
Channel :
Channel is the physical medium which connects the
transmitter with that of the receiver.
The physical medium includes copper wire, coaxial cable,
fibre optic cable, wave guide and free space or atmosphere.
Receiver:
The receiver block receives the incoming modified version of
the message signal from the channel and processes it to
recreate the original (non- electrical) form of the message
signal.
 Signal, Message,
Information
Signal:
It is a physical quantity which varies with respect to time or
space or independent or dependent variable.
(Or)
It is electrical waveform which carries information.
Ex: m(t) = Acos(ωt+ϕ)
Where, A= Amplitude or peak amplitude(Volts) w =
Frequency ( rad/sec)
ϕ = Phase (rad)
 Types of
Signals
• Analog or Continuous Signal
• Digital Signal
Analog or Continuous Signal: If the amplitude of signal
continuously varies with respect to time or if the signal
contains infinite number of amplitudes, it is called Analog or
continuous signal.
 Types of
Digital Signal:
Signals
If the signal contains
only two discrete amplitudes, then it is called
• digital
With signal.
respect communication, signals
to classified are
into,
• Baseband signal
• Bandpass signal If the signal contains
Baseband
frequencysignal:
or nearzero
to zero frequency, it is
called baseband signal.
Ex: Voice, Audio, Video, Bio-medical signals etc.
 Types of
Bandpass signal: If theSignals
signal contains band of frequencies far away
from base or zero, it is called bandpass signal.
Ex: AM, FM signals.

Message: It is sequence of symbols.

Ex: Happy New Year 2020.
Information: The content in the message is called information. It is
inversely proportional to probability of occurrence of the symbol.

• Information is measured in bits, decits, nats.

 Limitations of Communication
System
• Technological Problems:
To implement communication systems, Tx, Rx, channel are required
which requires hardware. Communication system is expensive and
complex.
• Bandwidth & Noise:
The effect of noise can be reduced by providing more bandwidth
to stations but due to this less number of
stations can only be accommodated.
• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):Noise should be low to increase channel
capacity but it is an unavoidable aspect of communication system.
 Modulati
on
It is the process of varying the characteristicsof high frequency
carrier in accordance with instantaneous values of modulating
or message or baseband signal.
(Or)
It is a frequency translation technique which converts baseband
or low frequency signal to bandpass or high frequency signal.

Modulation is used in the transmitter.

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Types of Modulation
 Types of
Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation: Amplitude of the carrier is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous values of modulating signal.

• Frequency Modulation: Frequency of the carrier is varied in

accordance with the instantaneous values of modulating signal.

• Phase Modulation: Phase of the carrier is varied in accordance

with the instantaneous values of modulating signal.
 Benefits or Need of
Modulation
• To reduce the length or height of antenna

• For multiplexing

• For narrow banding or to use antenna with single or same length

• To reduce noise effect

• To avoid equipment limitation or to reduce the size of the

equipment.
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Amplitude Modulation
The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
 Amplitude
Modulation

The carrier signal is given by,

C(t) = Ac Coswct
Where, Ac= Maximum amplitude of the carrier signal.
W= 2πfc= Frequency of the carrier signal. Modulating or
baseband signal is given by,
X(t) = Am Coswmt
Where, Am = Amplitude of the baseband signal.
 Amplitude
Modulation
The standard equation for amplitude modulated
signal is expressed as,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)] Where,
ma = Am/Ac = Modulation Index
Time Domain representation of AM:
S(t)=AcCos2πfct+μAc/2Cos[2πfc+2πfm]t+μAc/2Cos[2πfc-2πfm]t
I term: Carrier signal with amplitude Ac and frequency fc.
II. term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= fc+fm , Upper sideband frequency
III.term: Amplitude= μAc/2, frequency= fc-fm , Lower sideband frequency
 Amplitude
Modulation
Frequency Domain representation of AM:
The time domain representation of AM wave is
given by,
S(t)= Ac Cos2πfct[1+ma(Cos2πfmt)] Taking
Fourier transform on both sides,
S(f) = Ac/2[δ(f-fc)+ δ(f+fc)] + Acma/2[M(f-fc)+
M(f+fc)]
 Modulation
Index
Modulation index or depth of modulation is given by,
ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]= Am/Ac

Percentage of modulation index is,

%ma = [Amax-Amin/ Amax+Amin]X100= [Am/Ac ]X100
Types of AM with respect to modulation index:
• Under Modulation (ma <1)
• Critical Modulation (ma =1)
• Over Modulation (ma >1)
 Types of AM
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 Generation of AM
Wave
Square Law modulator:
This circuit consists of,
• A non-linear device
• Band pass filter
• Carrier source and modulating signal
 Generation of AM
Wave
The modulating signal and carrier are connected in series with
each other and their sum V1(t) is applied at the input of non-
linear device such as diode or transistor.
V1(t) = x(t) + Ac cosWct --- (1)
The input-output relation of non-linear device is, V2(t)=
aV1(t) + b V12(t) --- (2)
Using (1) in (2),
V2(t) = a x(t) + a Ac Cos (2πfct)+bx2(t) + 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)+b Ac2 Cos2
(2πfct)---(3)
Out of these 5 terms, 1,3,5 terms are unuseful terms are
eliminated by BPF.
 Generation of AM
Wave
Output of BPF is given by,
V0(t) = a Ac Cos (2πfct)+ 2bx(t) Ac Cos (2πfct)---(4)

Switching Modulator:
 Generation of
The carrier AM Wave
signal c(t) is connected in series with
modulating signal x(t).
Sum of these two signals is passed through a diode.
Output of the diode is passed through a band
pass filter and the result is an AM wave.
V1(t) = x(t) + c(t) ---(1)
Amplitude of c(t) is much greater than x(t), so ON & OFF of diode is
determined by c(t)
When c(t) is positive, V2(t) = V1(t) ---(2) When c(t) is negative,
V2(t) = 0 ---(3), Finally,
V2(t) =
 Detection of AM Wave
Demodulation or detection is the process of
recovering the original message signal from the
received modulated signal.

Types of AM Detectors:
1. Square Law detector
2. Envelope detector
3. Rectifier detectorA
 Detection of AM
Wave
Square Law detector:

The amplitude modulated wave is given as input to the square law

device.
V2(t)= aV1(t) + b V12(t)---(1)
When this is passed through square law device, V2(t) = aAcCoswct +
aAcmx(t)Coswct+ bAc2Cos2wct+
2bAc2mx(t)Cos2wct+ bAc2m2x2(t)Cos2wct---(2)
 Detection of AM
Wave
In order to extract the original message signal, V2(t) is passed
through a low pass filter .
The output of LPF is,
V0(t) = mbAc2x(t) ---(3)
Envelope Detector:
 Detection of AM
Wave
• The standard AM wave is applied at the input of detector .
• Inevery positive half cycle of input, diode is forward
biased which charges capacitor ‘C’.
• When capacitor charges to peak value of input voltage,
diode stops conducting.
• The capacitor discharges through ‘R’ between positive
peaks.
• This process continuous and capacitor charges and
discharges repeatedly.
 Detection of AM
Wave

Rectifier detector:
 Detection of AM
Wave
• In rectifier detector, diode acts as rectifier which allows only
positive half of the modulated signal to the filter.

• The low pass filter removes all the high frequency components
giving envelope at its output.

• This envelope will have some dc value which can be removed by

passing through capacitor ‘C’.

• The output of rectifier detector is the envelope with zero

dc value.
 Double Sideband-Suppressed
Carrier(DSB-SC)
The equation of AM wave in simple form is given by,
S(t) = Ac Cos wct +
Here, carrier component remains constant and does not convey
any information.
Therefore, if the carrier is suppressed, only sidebands remain in
the spectrum requiring less power.
• DSB-SC Contains two side bands i.e USB & LSB
• Power efficiency is 100%
• % Power saving in DSB-SC w.r.t AM is 66.67%.
 DSB-SC
Modulation
A DSB-SC signal is obtained by multiplying
the modulating signal x(t) with carrier signal c(t).
So, we need a product modulator for the
generation of DSB-SC wave.
 DSB-SC
Modulation
1. Balanced Modulator:
It consists of two amplitude modulators arranged in balanced
configuration to suppress the carrier completely.
 DSB-SC
Operation:
Modulation
• Carrier c(t) is applied to both the modulators.
• Message signal x(t) is applied directly to modulator 1 and with a
phase shift of 1800 to modulator 2.
Output of modulator 1 is,
S1(t) = Ac[1+ mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(1) Output of
modulator 2 is,
S2(t) = Ac[1- mx(t)] cos 2πfct ---(2)
These two outputs are applied to subtractor, whose
output is, 2mAcx(t) cos 2πfct---(3)
 DSB-SC
Ring Modulator:
2.
Modulation
It operates in two modes
• Mode1: Without modulating signal x(t)
• Mode 2: With modulating signal x(t)
Mode1: c(t) is positive
• Diodes D1, D2 forward biased, D3,D4 Reverse biased
• Output of ring modulator will be zero.
C(t) is negative
• Diodes D1, D2 reverse biased, D3,D4 forward biased
• Output of ring modulator will be zero.
Mode2:
• When modulating signal is present, during positive half cycle D1, D2 will be ON and
secondary of T1 is directly applied to primary of T2.
• Output will be positive
• During negative half cycle of modulating signal D3, D4 will be ON producing positive
voltage.
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DSB-SC Modulation
 Time Domain representation of
DSB-SC
Message signal is given by,

x(t) =Am cos(2πfmt) ---(1) Carrier signal is given

by,
C(t) = Ac cos(2πfct) ---(2) DSB-SC modulated
signal is given by,
S(t) = x(t) c(t) ---(3)
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]--
(4)
 Frequency Domain representation of
DSB-SC
The frequency spectrum of DSB-SC is obtained
by taking Fourier transform of s(t)
S(f) = F{[1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]}

S(f) =
This is the spectrum of DSB-SC wave.
 Demodulation of
DSB-SC
Coherent Detection:
The modulating signal x(t) is recovered from DSB- SC wave
s(t) by multiplying it with a locally generated carrier and
then passing through a LPF.
 Demodulation of
V(t) = s(t) c(t) ---(1)
DSB-SC
Where,
S(t) = 1/2AmAc[cos2π(fc+fm)t + cos2π(fc-fm)t]—(2) C(t) = cos2πfct ---(3)
Substituting (2) & (3) in (1)

When this is passed through a LPF, V0(t) =

 Single Sideband-Suppressed
Carrier(SSB-SC)
The modulation process in which only one side band is transmitted and
with carrier suppression is called Single sideband suppressed carrier
(SSB- SC).
Modulating Signal m(t) = Am Cos (2πfmt) and Carrier Signal c(t) = Ac Cos
(2πfct)
SSB-SC signal can be generated by passing DSB-SC signal through BPF.
And DSB-SC signal is generated by multiplying m(t) & c(t).

Cos2π( )t (or)
ASSB-SC(t) =
+ )t
ASSB-SC(t) = Cos2π( -
 Generation of
SSB-SC
1. Filter or Frequency Discrimination Method:

Filter method of generating DSB-SC Signal requires product modulator and BPF as
shown in figure.
Here Product Modulator generates DSB-SC Signal which contains two side bands i.e
USB & LSB.
By passing DSB-SC Signal through BPF either of sidebands are removed for generating
SSB-SC Signal.
 Generation of SSB-SC
2.Phase Shift or Phase Discrimination
Method:

The figure shows the block diagram for the phase shift method of SSB generation
and this system is used for the suppression of lower sideband.
This system uses two Product modulators
M1 and M2 and two 90o phase shifting networks.
 Vestigial Sideband
Transmission
• VSB-SC is used to transmit Video Signal which is large BW signal
containing very low and very high frequency components.
• Very low Frequencies raise sidebands near to carrier frequency.
• It is not possible to suppress one complete sideband.
• Very low frequencies contain most of useful information, any effect
to complete suppress the one sideband would result phase
distortion at these frequencies.
• Therefore compromise has been made to suppress the part of
sideband. Hence VSB-SC Signal contain one full sideband & part
of other side band.
 VSB Modulation &
Modulation:
Demodulation
Modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) are applied as
inputs to the product modulator.
S(t) = x(t)c(t)
This is the DSB-SC wave. It is applied to a side band filter which passes the
wanted sideband completely and vestige of unwanted sideband.
 VSB Modulation &
Demodulation
Demodulation:
The demodulation of VSB signal can be achieved using a coherent detector
by multiplying s(t) with a locally generated carrier.
V(t) = s(t)AcCos2πfct
This signal is then passed through a LPF which passes low frequency
message signal and rejects carrier.
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
QAM is used to transmit color
information in TV signal transmission.
 Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation(QAM)
The output of Transmitter S (t) = m1 (t) Cos (2πfct + m2 (t) Sin
(2πfct)
The output of multiplier S (t) = [m (t) Cos (2πfct + m (t) Sin (2πfct)] xCos (2πfct)
1 1 2

= m1(t) Cos2(2πfct) + m2(t) sin(2πfct) Cos(2πfct)

= m1(t)/2(1+Cos4πfct)) + m2(t)/2 Sin(4πfct)
=m1(t)/2 + m1(t)/2 Cos(4πfct)+ m2(t)/2 Sin(4πfct) Second
and Third terms are high frequency signals are eliminated by
LPF. So that output of LPF is m1(t)/2
The output of multiplier S2(t) = [m1 (t) Cos (2πfct + m2 (t) Sin
(2πfct)] x
Si
n (2πfct)
=m2(t)/2Sin(4πfct)+m2(t)/2-m2(t)/2Cos(4πfct) First and Third
terms are high frequency signals are eliminated by LPF.
 Super Heterodyne AM
Receiver
Heterodyne means mixing two frequencies and generating single or
constant frequency and the output of mixer will be fixed frequency.
Specification of AM Receiver:
• The frequency range of AM-MW( Medium wave)
: (540-1640) KHz
• Band width of receiver:1640 KHz – 540 KHz = 1100 KHz
• Band width of each AM station : 10 KHz
• No. of stations available: 110
• Intermediate frequency (fIF): 455 KHz
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Super Heterodyne AM Receiver

 Super Heterodyne AM
Receiver
Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal into electrical signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
• It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier.
• Tuning circuit designed to select 110 stations and amplifier provides
amplification for 1100 KHz band width.
• RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image signal
rejection and noise reduction.
Mixer:
• It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass Filter (BPF).
• Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of incoming signal and locally
generated signal.
• BPF selects difference frequency at the output whose center frequency is
equal to= 455 KHz.
Local Oscillator:
• It is either Colpits or Hartley oscillator.
• It generates carrier frequency 455 KHz greater than the incoming carrier
frequency to produce constant or fixed frequency.
 Super Heterodyne AM
IF Amplifier:
Receiver
• It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency amplifier which provides
amplification for 10 KHz band width at center frequency of 455 KHz.
• It is cascade CE amplifier which provides 90% of total receiver
amplification.

Detector or Demodulator:
• It is frequency translator circuit which extracts modulating signal from AM signal.
• Usually Envelope detector is used.
• Fidelity of the receiver is mainly depends on detector or demodulator.

Audio Amplifier:
• It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20- 20K) Hz.
• It contain cascade CE Voltage amplifier followed by Power amplifier.

Loud Speaker:
• It converts Electrical signal into sound or audio signal.
ANGLE
MODULATION
Angle modulation is a process of varying angle of
carrier in accordance with the the
modulating signal. instantaneous values
of

Angle can be varied by varying frequency or phase.

Angle modulation is of 2
types.

• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
 Frequency
Modulation
The process of frequency the carrier in
varying
accordance with the of values the
modulating signal.
instantaneous of

Relation between angle and frequency :

Consider carrier signal c(t)= Ac Cos (wct+φ)

= Ac Cos (2πfct +φ)
Where, Wc= Carrier frequency
φ = Phase
C(t) = Ac Cos[ψ(t)], where, ψ(t)= wct+φ

i.e Frequency can be obtained by derivating

angle and angle can be obtained by integrating
frequency.
 Frequency
Modulation

Frequency modulator converts input voltage into frequency i.e the amplitude
of modulating signal m(t) changes to frequency at the output.

Consider carrier signal c(t) =Ac Coswct

The frequency variation at the output is called
instantaneous frequency and is expressed as,
wi = wc + kf m(t)
Where, kf = frequency sensitivity factor in Hz/volt
 Frequency
Modulation
The angle of the after modulation can
carrier be
written as,

Frequency modulated signal can be written as, AFM(t) = Ac Cos [ψi(t)] =

Ac Cos [wct + kfʃm(t)dt]

Frequency Deviation in FM:

The instantaneous frequency, wi = wc + kf m(t)

= wc + Δw
Where, Δw = kf m(t) is called frequency deviation which may be positive or
negative depending on the sign of m(t).
 Phase
Modulation
The process of varying the phase of carrier in accordance
with instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Consider modulating signal x(t) and carrier signal c(t) =

Ac Coswct

Phase modulating signal,

APM(t) = Ac Cos[ ψi(t)] Where, ψi(t)

= wct + kpm(t)

Where, kp = Phase sensitivity

factor in rad/volt

APM(t) = Ac
Cos[wct + kpm(t)]
 Phase Modulation
Frequency deviation in PM:

Conversion between Frequency and Phase

Modulation:
 Modulation
Index
Definition:
Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of frequency
deviation () to the modulating frequency (fm).

M.I.=Frequency Deviation Modulating Frequency

mf =δ
fm

In FM M.I.>1

Modulation Index of FM decides − (i)Bandwidth of the FM

wave. (ii)Number of sidebands in FM wave.
 Deviation
Ratio
The modulation index corresponding to maximum
deviation and maximum modulating frequency is called
deviation ratio.

Deviation Ratio= Maximum Deviation

Maximum modulating Frequency

= δmax
fmax

In FM broadcasting the maximum value of deviation is

limited to 75
kHz. The maximum modulating frequency is also limited to
15 kHz.
 Percentage M.I. of
FM
The percentage modulation is defined as the ratio of the actual frequency
deviation produced by the modulating signal to the maximum allowable frequency
deviation.

Actual deviation
% M.I =
Maximum allowable
deviation


Mathematical Representation
of FM
(i) Modulating
Signal:

It may be represented as,

em = Em (1)
cos mt
Here cos term taken for simplicity
where,
em = Instantaneous amplitude
m = Angular velocity
= 2fm
fm = Modulating frequency
(ii) Carrier Signal:

Carrier may be
represented as,
ec = Ec sin (ct + ) -----(2)

where,
ec = Instantaneous amplitude
c = Angular velocity
= 2fc
fc = Carrier frequency
 = Phase angle
 (iii) FM Wave:

Fig. Frequency Vs. Time in FM

FM is nothing but a deviation of frequency.
From Fig. 2.25, it is seen that instantaneous frequency ‘f’ of the FM
wave is given by,
f =fc (1 + K Em cos mt) (3)
where,
fc =Unmodulated carrier frequency K =
Proportionality constant
Em cos mt =Instantaneous modulating signal
(Cosine term preferred for simplicity otherwise
we can use sine term also)
• The maximum deviation for this particular signal will occur, when
cos mt =  1 i.e. maximum. f =fc (1  K  (4)
 Equation (2.26) becomes, E ) f =f  K  (5)
m c
Em f c

0
So that maximum deviation  will be given by,
 = K Emfc  (6) The instantaneous amplitude of FM
signal is given by,
eFM = A sin [f(c, m)]
= A sin   (7)
where,
f(c, m)= Some function of carrier and
modulating
frequencies
Let us write equation (2.26) in terms of  as,
 = c (1 + K Em cos mt)
To find ,  must be integrated with respect to time. Thus,
 =  dt
= c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
=c (1 + K Em cos mt) dt
 =  c (t+ KEm sin mt)
m
=ct + KEmc sin mt =ct + KEmfc sin mt
m m
=ct +  sinmt [..  = K Em fc]
.
fm

Substitute value of  in equation (7) Thus,
eFM = A sin (ct +  sinmt )---(8)
fm
eFM = A sin (ct +mf sinmt )---(9)

This is the equation of FM.

 Frequency Spectrum
of FM
Frequency spectrum is a graph of amplitude versus frequency. The
frequency spectrum of FM wave tells us about number of sideband present in
the FM wave and their amplitudes.
The expression for FM wave is not simple. It is complex because it is sine of
sine function.
Only solution is to use ‘Bessels Function’.
Equation (2.32) may be expanded as,
eFM ={A J0 (mf) sin ct
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + m) t − sin (c − m) t]
+ J1 (mf) [sin (c + 2m) t + sin (c − 2m) t]
+ J3 (mf) [sin (c + 3m) t − sin (c − 3m) t]
+ J4 (mf) [sin (c + 4m) t + sin (c − 4m) t]+ }  (2.33)
From this equation it is seen that the FM wave consists of:
(i) Carrier (First term in equation).
(ii) Infinite number of sidebands (All terms except first term are
sidebands).
The amplitudes of carrier and sidebands depend on ‘J’ coefficient.
c = 2fc, m = 2fm So in place of c and m, we can use fc and fm.
0

Fig. : Ideal Frequency Spectrum of

FM
 Bandwidth of
FM
From frequency spectrum of FM wave shown in Fig. 2.26, we can
say that the bandwidth of FM wave is infinite.
But practically, it is calculated based on how many sidebands
have significant amplitudes.
(i) The Simple Method to calculate the bandwidth is −

BW=2fmx Number of significant sidebands --(1)

With increase in modulation index, the number of significant

sidebands increases. So that bandwidth also increases.
(ii) The second method to calculate bandwidth is by
Carson’s rule.
0

Carson’s rule states that, the bandwidth of FM wave is twice the

sum of deviation and highest modulating frequency.
BW=2( +fmmax) (2)

Highest order side band = To be found from table 2.1 after the
calculation of modulation Index m where, m = /fm

e.g. If m= 20KHZ/5KHZ

From table, for modulation index 4, highest order side band is 7th.
Therefore, the bandwidth is
B.W. = 2 fm  Highest order side band
=2  5 kHz  7
=70 kHz
Types of Frequency
Modulation
FM (Frequency Modulation)

Narrowban Wideband FM
d FM (WBFM)
(NBFM) [When modulation
[When index is large]
modulation
index is small]
 Comparison between Narrowband and
Sr. Wideband
Parameter FM NBFM WBFM
No.
1. Modulation Less than or slightly Greater than 1
index greater than 1
2. Maximum 5 kHz 75 kHz
deviation
3. Range of 20 Hz to 3 kHz 20 Hz to 15 kHz
modulating
frequency
4. Maximum Slightly greater than 1 5 to 2500
modulation
index
5. Bandwidth Small approximately same Large about 15 times
as that of AM BW = 2fm greater than that of NBFM.
BW = 2(+fmmax)

6. Applications FM mobile communication like Entertainment broadcasting (can

police wireless, ambulance, short be used for high quality music
range ship to shore transmission)
communication etc.
 Representation of
FMways:
FM can be represented by two
1. Time domain.
2. Frequency domain.
1.FM in Time Domain
Time domain representation means continuous variation of voltage with respect to time as shown in Fig. .

Fig. 1 FM in Time Domain

2.FM in Frequency Domain
• Frequency domain is also known as frequency spectrum.
• FM in frequency domain means graph or plot of amplitude versus frequency as
shown in Fig. 2.29.

Fig. 2: FM in Frequency Domain

 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis
• Pre and de-emphasis circuits are used only in frequency modulation.
• Pre-emphasis is used at transmitter and de-emphasis at receiver.
1. Pre-emphasis
• In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
• This effect can be reduced by increasing the value of modulation index (mf), for
higher modulating frequencies.
• This can be done by increasing the deviation ‘’ and ‘’ can be increased by
increasing the amplitude of modulating signal at higher frequencies.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher audio modulating frequencies in
accordance with prearranged response curve is called pre-emphasis.
• Pre-emphasis circuit is a high pass filter as shown in Fig.
 As shown in Fig. 1, AF is passed through a high-pass filter,
before applying to FM modulator.
•As modulating frequency (fm) increases, capacitive reactance
decreases andmodulating voltage goeson increasing. fm  Voltage
of modulating signal applied to FM modulat Boosting is done according to pre-
arranged curve as shown
in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: P re-emphasis
Curve
0 •

The time constant of pre-emphasis is at 50 s in all CCIR standards.

• In systems employing American FM and TV standards, networks having
time constant of 75 sec are used.
• The pre-emphasis is used at FM transmitter as shown in Fig.

Fig. FM Transmitter with Pre-

emphasis
 De-emphasis
• De-emphasis circuit is used at FM receiver.
Definition:
The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies in the
process of pre-emphasis is nullified at receiver by process called
de-emphasis.
• De-emphasis circuit is a low pass filter shown in Fig.

Fig. De-emphasis
Circuit
 Fig. De-emphasis Curve

As shown in Fig.5, de-modulated FM is applied to the de-emphasis

circuit (low pass filter) where with increase in fm, capacitive
reactance Xc
decreases. So that output of de-emphasis circuit also reduces • Fig. 5 shows
the de-emphasis curve corresponding to a time
constant
50 s. A 50 s de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency response curve that is 3 dB
down at frequency given by, = 1/ 2πRC
= 1/ 2π x 50x
f
1000
= 3180 Hz
Comparison between Pre-emphasis and De-
emphasis
Comparison between AM
and FM
FM
GENERATION
There are two methods for generation of FM wave.

Generation of FM

Direct Method
Indirect Method

1.Armstrong Method
1. Reactance Modulator
2. Varactor Diode
Reactance
Method

Fig. : Transistorized Reactance

Modulator
Varactor Diode
Modulator

Fig. : Varactor Diode Frequency

Modulator
Limitations of Direct Method of FM
Generation
1. In this method, it is very difficult to get high order
stability in carrier frequency because in this method the
basic oscillator is not a stable oscillator, as it is controlled by
the modulating signal.

2.Generally in this method we get distorted FM, due

to non-linearity of the varactor diode.
0
FM Transmitter (Armstrong Method)
FM Generation using
IC 566

Fig. : Basic Frequency Modulator using NE566

VCO
 Advantages/
Disadvantages/Applications of FM
Advantages of FM
1. Transmitted power remains constant.
2. FM receivers are immune to noise.
3. Good capture effect. 4.No mixing of signals.

Disadvantages of FM
The greatest disadvantages of FM are:
1.It uses too much spectrum space. 2.The bandwidth is
wider.
3. The modulation index can be kept low
to minimize the
bandwidth used.
4. But reduction in M.I. reduces the noise immunity.
5. Used only at very high frequencies.

Applications of FM
1.FM radio broadcasting. 2.Sound transmission in
TV. 3.Police wireless.
0
Demodulation of FM Signal

Two steps involved in FM demodulation

•Conversion of FM signal into AM signal, Tank or parallel
resonance circuit converts FM into AM signal.
•An envelope detector is used to extract
modulating signal from modulated signal.
Slope Demodulator:
 Demodulation of FM
Signal
•The input signal is a frequency modulated signal. It is applied to the tuned
transformer (T1, C1, C2 combination) which converts the incoming FM signal into AM.
•This AM signal is applied to a simple diode detector circuit, D1. Here the
diode provides the rectification, while C3 removes any unwanted high frequency
components, and R1 provides a load.
Advantages:
• Simple and low cost
• Enables FM to be detected without any additional circuitry.
Disadvantages:
• Nonlinear operation
• Both frequency and amplitude variations are demodulated
and this means that much higher levels of noise and interference are
experienced.
0
Demodulation of FM Signal

Foster Seeley Demodulator or detector:

 Demodulation of FM
Signal
•Foster seeley demodulator contains two tuning circuits and
two envelope detectors.

•One section of tuning circuit and envelope detector works for

incoming frequency is greater than carrier frequency and vice
versa for incoming frequency less than carrier frequency.

•Tuning circuit converts FM signal to AM signal and Envelope

detector extracts message signal from AM signal.
 Demodulation of FM
Signal Ratio
Demodulator:

•Ratio detector is similar to Foster seeley demodulator except of Diode of

D2 is reversed potential divider circuit.
•Potential divider circuit suppress the noise and this advantage of ratio
detector.
0
Demodulation of FM Signal PLL Demodulator or
detector:
•Phase Locked Loop is closed loop system which contains Phase detector,
VCO and loop filter or LPF as shown in figure.

•It continuously finds the phase difference between incoming FM signal

and locally generated carrier.
•And based on Phase difference it generates Modulating
signal.
0

Demodulation of FM Signal
Zero Crossing Demodulator or detector:
 Demodulation of FM
Signal
•Zero crossing detector contains hard limiter, Zero crossing detector, Multi vibrator,
and Averaging Circuit.

•Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper which converts continuous FM signal
into Digital.

•Zero crossing detector is differentiator which generates spikes when signal crosses
zero and no. of zero crossings is proportional to modulating signal amplitude.

•Mono stable multivibrator is generates pulses with constant amplitude and width for
each spike.

•Averaging is LPF circuit which integrates pulses and generates modulating signal.
 Super Heterodyne FM
Receiver

Antenna: It is passive device which converts electromagnetic signal into electrical

signal.
RF Tuned Amplifier:
It is broad band amplifier which contain tuning circuit and amplifier. Tuning circuit
designed to select 100 stations and amplifier provides amplification for 20MHz or
20 000 KHzband width.
RF tuned amplifier is responsible for sensitivity, selectivity, Image signal rejection
and noise reduction.
 Super Heterodyne FM
Receiver
Mixer: It is combination of frequency mixer and Band Pass Filter
(BPF).
Frequency generates sum and difference frequency of incoming
signal and locally generated signal.
BPF selectsdifference frequency at the output
whose center frequency is equal to = 10.7MHz.

Local Oscillator:
It isgenerates
It either Colpits or frequency
carrier Hartley oscillator.
10.7MHz.greaterthan
incoming carrier frequency to produce constant
frequency. the or
IF Amplifier:
fixed amplifier which
It is narrow band, high gain and fixed frequency
provides amplification for 20 MHz band width at center frequency of
10.7 MHz.
 Super Heterodyne FM
Limiter: Receiver
It is combination of hard limiter and BPF.
Hard limiter is two sided independent clipper removes the noise
spikes.
Detector or Demodulator or Discriminator:
It is frequencytranslator circuit which extracts
modulating signal from FM signal.

De-emphasis:
It is LPF which attenuates
frequencies of Audio signal from 2 KHz to 20
KHz to get the original modulating signal.
Audio Amplifier:
It is low frequency amplifier which provides amplification at (20- 20K)
Hz.

Loud Speaker:
0
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Allocation of different frequency bands or carrier frequency to different
channel is called “Frequency Division Multiplexing”. And it is used to
transmit Radio & TV signals.
 Frequency Division
Multiplexing
FDM Multiplexing:
•Different carrier frequencies are used for different stations or
channels.
•Modulator is used in the transmitter Band width
of FDM system,
BWFDM = N. BWCH+ (N-1) BWG

Where N = No. of channels or

, stations BWCH= Bandwidth of
each channel BWG=
Bandwidth of guard band
Guard band is frequency gap between two
channels
Frequency Division
Multiplexing FDM De-
Multiplexing:
•BPF filter is used select channels or stations
•Demodulator is used in the receiver.
NOISE IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Noise: It is an unwanted signal which tends to interfere
with the modulating signal.
Types of noise:
Noise is basically divided into,
1. External Noise
2. Internal Noise
 Classification of Noise
1.External Noise:
• Atmospheric Noise: Radio noise caused by natural
atmospheric processes, primarily lightening discharges in
thunder storms.
• Extraterrestrial Noise: Radio disturbances from
sources other than those related to the Earth. Cosmic Noise:
Random noise that originates outside the
Earth’s atmosphere.
Solar Noise: Noise that originates from the Sun is called Solar noise.
 Classification of
• IndustrialNoise
Noise: Noise generated by automobile ignition,
aircrafts, electric motors, Switch gears, welding etc.
2. Internal Noise:
• Shot Noise: Random motion of electrons in the semiconductor
devices generates shot noise.
• Thermal or Johnson’s Noise: Random motion of electrons in
the resistor is called Thermal noise.
Vn = KT0BR
Where, K= Boltzmann constant, R= Resistance T0= Absolute
temperature B= Bandwidth
 Noise Temperature and Noise
Figure
Noise temperature(Te): It is a means for specifying noise in terms
of an equivalent temperature. It is expressed as ,
Te = (Fn-1) T0
Where, Fn = Noise Figure, T0 = Absolute temperature
Noise figure(Fn): It is the ratio of output and input noise of an
amplifier or network. It is expressed as, =
Where, N = Noise added by the network or amplifier.
G = gain of an network or amplifier
0

Noise Temperature and Noise Figure Noise Figure of Cascade

Amplifier or Network:
Noise Figure of an cascade network or amplifier is
expressed as,

F n=

Where, F1= Noise figure of 1st stage

G1= Gain of 1st stage
F2= Noise figure of 2nd stage G2 = Gain of 2nd stage
Fn = Noise figure of nth stage Gn = Gain of nth stage
 Noise equivalent
Bandwidth
When white noise (flat spectrum of frequencies like white light)
is passed through a filter having a frequency response , some
of the noise power is rejected by the filter and some is
passed through to the output.
The noise equivalent bandwidth is defined in the following
picture,
 Figure of Merit
Figure of Merit (FOM): It is ratio of output SNR to
input SNR of a communication system.
FOM =
Where S0= OutputSignal Power &N0= Output Noise Power
Si= Input Signal Power &Ni= Input Noise Power
Receiver model for noise calculation:
 Receiver model for noise
calculation
• The receiver is combination of Band Pass Filter (BPF) and Demodulator.
• The BPF is combination of RF Tuned Amplifier, Mixer and Local Oscillator
whose band width is equal to band width of modulated signal at
transmitter.
• Channel Inter connects transmitter & receiver. Channel adds noise to the
modulated signal while transmitting and it is assumed to be white noise
whose Power Spectral Density is uniform.
• BPF converts white noise in to color or Band pass noise or narrow band
pass noise.
Receiver model for noise
calculation
PSD of white noise and Narrow band pass noise are,

Power of band pass noise P = =

Where B = Band width noise.
Communication system model for noise
calculation

• The communication system model for noise calculation contains transmitter, channel
and receiver.
• Transmitter is replaced by modulator which converts low frequency modulating signal
x(t) into high frequency bandpass signal with the help of carrier signal.
• Channel is replaced or modelled as additive noise which adds white noise with PSD
η/2 and it contains all frequencies.
 Communication system model for
noise calculation
• Receiver is modelled as BPF followed by demodulator.
• BPF is combination of RF tuned amplifier, mixer , local oscillator.
• Passband or badnwidth of BPF is equal to bandwidth of modulated signal.
• BPF converts white noise into color or bandpass noise ηB(t).
Input to BPF is s(t) + ηw(t) Output of BPF is s(t) +
ηB(t)
• Demodulator converts high frequency or bandpass signal into low frequency or
baseband signal.
 Bandpass noise
representation
Bandpass noise is represented by,
1. Time Domain representation
• Quadrature representation
• Envelope representation
2. Frequency Domain representation
Quadrature representation:
Bandpass noise can be represented as,
ηB(t) = ηi(t) ocs Wct ηq(t)SinWct Where, ηB(t) = Bnadpass
noise
ηi(t) = Inphase component of lowpass noise ηq(t) =
Quadrature component of lowpass noise
0

Quadrature representation
ηi(t) and ηq(t) can be recovered from ηB(t),
 Bandpass noise
representation
Frequency domain representation:
Bandpass noise can be represented in frequency
domain as,

Properties of ηB(t):
• ηB(t), ηi(t) , ηq(t) will have same power.
• The PSD of ηi(t) & ηq(t) is,
Figure of Merit calculation in
DSB-SC

• Transmitter contains DSB-SC modulator, whose output s(t) =

m(t) coswct.
• Noise generated by the channel is considered as white noise
ηw(t) with uniform noise power spectral density η/2 .
 Figure of Merit calculation in
DSB-SC
• Band pass filter’s bandwidth is equal to modulated signal
bandwidth.
• BPF allows DSB-SC signal and converts white noise into color
noise or bandpass noise ηB(t).
Therefore, o/p of the BPF is yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t).
• Synchronous detector is used to extract modulating signal
m(t) which contain multiplier followed by low pass filter.
Input signal power is , Si = m2(t)/2, Input noise power, Ni = η. 2fm,
Output signal power, S0 = [m(t)/2]2, Output noise power, N0 = η. fm/2
Substituting these values, FOM=(S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)= 2
 Figure of Merit calculation in
SSB-SCSSB-SC
signal,
Output of BPF, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t) Bandpass noise, ηB(t) = ηi(t) ocs Wct
ηq(t)SinWct

Input signal power is , Si = m2(t), Input noise power, Ni = η. fm Output signal

power,S0 = m2(t)/4 , Output noise power, N0 = η. fm/4 Substituting these values, FOM=
(S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)= 1
 Noise calculation in AM
system
AM signal, S(t) = [Ac+m(t)] Cosw t Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + η (t)
c B

= [Ac+m(t)] Coswct + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = [Ac2/2]+[m2(t)/2]

Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Fm, Output signal power,S0 = m2(t) Output noise
power, N0 = 2η. Fm
Using these values, FOM= 2.
 Noise calculation in FM
system
Frequency modulated signal s(t) = A Cos [ w t + Kfʃm(t) dt] Output of BPF is,
c c

yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)

= Ac Cos [ wct + Kfʃm(t) dt] + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = Ac2/2, Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Δf

Output signal power, S0 = γ2K 2m2(t) f
Substituting these values, FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni)
FOM = (3/4π2)mf3, Where mf = Δf/fm
 Noise calculation in PM
system
PM signal S(t) = Ac Cos[w t+ K m(t)]
c p

Output of BPF is, yi(t) = s(t) + ηB(t)

= Ac Cos[wct+ Kpm(t)] + ηB(t)

Input signal power is , Si = Ac2/2, Input noise power, Ni = 2 η. Δf Output signal

power,S0 = γ2Kp2m2(t), Output noise power, N0 = 2η.
Fm Substituting these values and substituting m2(t)= Am2/2
2
FOM= (S0/N0)/(Si/Ni) = mp (Δf/ fm)
0
Comparison between different Modulation Systems with respect to FOM
 ANALOG PULSE MODULATION
SCHEMES
Pulse Modulation:
The process of transmitting the signals in the form of pulses by using
some special techniques.

There are two types of pulse modulation systems,

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation
2. Pulse Time Modulation

Pulse time modulation is further divided into,

• Pulse Width Modulation
• Pulse Position Modulation
 PULSE AMPLITUDE
MODULATION(PAM)
In Pulse amplitude modulation, the amplitude of
pulses of carrier pulse train is varied in
accordance with the modulating signal.
In PAM , the pulses can be flat top type or natural type or
ideal type.

Out of these, flat top PAM is widely used because of easy

noise removal.
 PAM
GENERATION

• The sample and hold circuit consists of two FETs and a

capacitor.
• The sampling switch is closed for a short duration by a short
pulse applied to the gate G1 of transistor.
 PAM
• During
GENERATION
period, the capacitor
this is
charged to voltage equal to quickly
instantaneous
a
sample value of incoming signal x(t)
• Now the sampling switch is opened and capacitor holds the charge.
• The discharge switch is then closed by a pulse applied to gate G2 of
second transistor.
• Due to this the capacitor is discharged to zero volts. The discharge
switch is then opened and the capacitor has no voltage.
• Hence the output of sample and hold circuit consists of a sequence of
flat top samples.
0
PAM GENERATION
 Transmission bandwidth
of PAM
In PAM signal the pulse duration τ is assumed to be very small compared
to time period Ts i.e τ< Ts
If the maximum frequency in the modulating signal x(t) is fm then
sampling frequency fs is given by fs<=2fm Or 1/Ts <= 2fm or Ts <=
1/2fm
Therefore, τ< Ts <= 1/2fm
If ON and OFF time of PAM pulse is equal then maximum frequency of
PAM pulse will be fmax = 1/ τ+ τ = 1/2 τ
Therefore, transmission bandwidth >=1/2 τ >= 1/[2(1/2fm)>= fm
 Demodulation of
PAM
Demodulation is the reverse
modulation process of in which modulating
recovered back signal is
from the modulated signal.
 Demodulation of
PAM
• For PAM signals, demodulation is done using a holding circuit.
• The received PAM signal is first passed through a holding
circuit and then through a lowpass filer.
• Switch S is closed during the arrival of the pulse and is opened
at the end of the pulse.
• Capacitor C is charged to pulse amplitude value and holds this
value during the interval between two pulses.
• Holding circuit output is then passed through a low pass filter
to extract the original signal.
 Advantages, Disadvantages
of PAM
Advantages:
• It is the simple process for modulation and demodulation
• Transmitter and receiver circuits are simple and easy to construct.
Disadvantages:
• Bandwidth requirement is high
• Interference of noise is maximum
• Power requirement is high
Applications:
• Used in microcontrollers for generating control signals
• Used as electronic driver for LED lighting
 SAMPLIN
G
It is the process of converting a continuous time signal into a discrete time signal
During sampling, sufficient number of samples of the signal must be taken so that
original signal is correctly represented in its samples and possible for
reconstruction.
Number of samples to be taken depends on maximum signal frequency present in
the signal.
• Different types of samples are,
• Ideal
• Natural
• Flat top
 SAMPLING
Sampling theorem:
A continuous time signal be completely
may
represented in its samples and recovered back if
the sampling frequency fs>2fm
Nyqyist rate and Nyquist interval:
When sampling rate becomes exactly equal to 2fm
samples per second, it is called Nyquist rate
fs=2fm Hz
Maximum sampling interval is called
interval. Ts = 1/fs=1/2fm sec Nyquist
0

NATURAL SAMPLING
In natural sampling, pulse has a finite width equal to τ.
 NATURAL
SAMPLING
Let an analog continuous time signal x(t) sampled at a rate fs
Hz and sampling function c(t) which is a train of periodic
pulse of width τ and frequency fs Hz
Case i: When c(t) is high

Switch S is closed and output g(t) is exactly equal to input

g(t) = x(t)
 NATURAL
SAMPLING
Case ii: When c(t) is low Switch s is
open
g(t) = 0
The time domain representation of naturally sampled
signal is given by,
g(t) = x(t)
The spectrum of naturally sampled signal is
given by,
G(f) =
0

Pulse Width Modulation(PWM)

In PWM, the width of pulses of carrier pulse train is varied in
proportion with amplitude of modulating signal.
 PWM
GENERATION

A sawtooth generator generates a sawtooth signal of

frequency fs.
This is applied to inverting terminal of comparator.
 PWM
GENERATION
• Modulating x(t) is applied to non-inverting
terminalsignal
of comparator.
• Comparator output remains high as long as instantaneous amplitude
of x(t) is higher than sawtooth signal.
• This gives the PWM output at the output of comparator.
• The leading edges of PWM waveform coincide with falling edges of
ramp signal
• Therefore, leading edges of PWM signal are always generated at fixed
time intervals
• Occurrence of falling edge of PWM signal is dependent on
instantaneous amplitude of x(t)
0
PWM GENERATION
 DETECTION OF
PWM

• The PWM signal received at the input of detector circuit will

contain noise
• This signal is applied to a pulse generator which regenerates the
PMW signal.
• Some of the noise is removed and the pulses are squared up.
 DETECTION OF
PWM
• The regenerated pulses are applied to a reference pulse generator.
• It produces a train of constant amplitude and constant width
pulses.
• These pulses are synchronized to the leading edges of regenerated
PWM pulses but delayed by fixed intervals.
• The regenerated PWM pulses are also applied to a ramp generator whose o/p is a constant slope ramp for
the duration of the pulse.
• At the end of the pulse a sample and hold circuit retains the final ramp voltage until it is reset at the end
of the pulse.
• The constant amplitude pulses at the o/p of the reference generator are then
added to ramp signal.
• O/P of the adder is then clipped off at a threshold level to
generate a PAM signal.
• A low pass filter is used to recover the original modulating signal
back from PAM signal.
0
DETECTION OF PWM
 PULSE POSITION
MODULATION(PPM)
Modulation technique in which position of pulses of carrier pulse
train is varied in accordance with amplitude of modulating
signal.
Generation:
 PPM
• The
GENERATION
block diagram is similar to PWM
except monostable multivibrator.
• PWM pulses at the
obtained
comparator are applied output of to
multivibrator a
. multivibrator ismonostable
a negative
• triggered edge At each trailing edge of
monostable circuit.
PWM signal the monostable output goes high.
• PPM output remains high for a fixed
duration from trailing edge of PWM signal.
0
PPM GENERATION
0
DETECTION OF PPM
 DETECTION OF
PPM
• The circuit consists of S-R flipflop which is set or gives high
output when reference pulses arrive.
• Reference pulses are generated by a reference pulse
generator.
• Flip-flop circuit is reset and gives low output at the leading
edge of PPM signal.
• The process repeats and we get PWM pulses at the output
of flip-flop.
• PWM pulses are then demodulated in a PWM
demodulator to get original modulating signal.
0

DETECTION OF PPM
 Radio receiver
The
measurements
important characteristics of superheterodyne
radio receiver are,
• Sensitivity
• Selectivity
• Fidelity
Sensitivity:
• It is defined as the ability of receiver to amplify weak
signals
• It is defined in terms of voltage which must be applied at the
receiver input terminals to provide a standard output power at
the receiver output.
 Radio receiver
measurements
• Sensitivity is expressed in milli volts
• For practical receivers sensitivity is expressed in terms of signal power required
to produce minimum acceptable output with minimum acceptable noise.

• Sensitivity of superheterodyne radio receiver depends on

• Gain of RF amplifier
• Gain of IF amplifier
• Noise figure of RX
 Radio receiver
measurements
Selectivity:
It is defined as the ability of receiver to
reject unwanted signals.

Selectivity depends on
• Receiving frequency
• Response of IF section
 Radio receiver
measurements
Fidelity:
It is the ability of a receiver to reproduce
all the modulating frequencies equally.
 INFORMATION & CHANNEL
CAPACITY
Information:
Information is defined as a sequence of letters,
alphabets, symbols carries a message
which specific meaning. with

Source of Information:
The sources of information can be divided into 2 types.
•Analog Information sources
•Digital information sources
Analog information sources produce continuous
amplitude continuous time electrical waveforms.
Discrete information sources produces messages
consisting of discrete letters or symbols.
 Information content of a
message
• The information content of a message is represented by the probability or
uncertainty of the event associated with the message.
• The probability of occurrence of a message is inversely related to amount
of information.
• Therefore, a message with least probability of occurrence will have
maximum amount of information.
• The relation between information content of message and its probability
of occurrence is given by,
Ik = log (1/Pk)
• The unit of information is bit.
• Ik = log 2(1/Pk) bits, Ik = log10 (1/Pk)Decits, Ik = loge(1/Pk) nats.
Entropy (Average information
content)
Entropy is defined the amount of
as information average message.
by It is
conveyed denoted by H. a

Properties of Entropy:
1. Entropy is always non negative i.e H(x) ≥ 0.
2. Entropy is zero when probability of all symbols is zero except probability one
symbol is one.
3. Entropy is maximum when probability occurrence of all
symbols is equal
i.e H(x) =
Entropy of symbols in long independent
sequences
• In a statistically independent sequence, the occurrence of a
particular symbol during a time interval is independent of occurrence
of symbols at other time interval.
• If P1, P2, P3, ……. PM are the probabilities of occurrences of M
symbols, then the total information content of the message consisting
N symbols is given by,

• To obtain entropy or average information per symbol, the total

information content is divided by number of symbols in a message.
Therefore, H(X) =
 Entropy of symbols in long depend
sequences
• In statistically dependent sequences, occurrence of one
message alters the occurrence of other message.
• Due to this type of dependency, amount of information
coming from a source is gradually decreased.
• To determine the entropy and information
rate of symbols for long statistically
dependent sequences special
a
developed which is Markoffmodel
statistical is
model.
 Markoff statistical model for
information sources
A random process in which probability of future values depends on
probability of previous events is called Markoff process.
The sequence generated from such process is called Markoff sequence.
Entropy of Markoff sources:
Entropy of Markoff sources is defined as average entropy of each state.
Information rate of Markoff sources

The information rate of Markoff sources is given by,

R = rH

Where, r = Rate at which symbols are generated H= Entropy

of Markoff sources

Information rate is measured in bits/sec

 Different types of
Entropies
Marginal Entropies:

Joint entropy:
Conditional entropy:

Relation between Entropies:

H(X,Y)=H(X)+H(Y/X) = H(Y)+H(X/Y)
 Mutual
I(X; Y) of Information
a channel is equal to difference
between initial uncertainty and final uncertainty.
I(X;Y) = Initial uncertainty – final uncertainty. I(X;Y) = H(X) -
H(X/Y) bits/symbol
Where, H(X) - entropy of the source andH(X/Y) -
Conditional Entropy.
Properties of mutual information:
1. I(X;Y) = I(Y;X)
2. I(X;Y)>=0
3. I(X;Y) = H(X) - H(X/Y)
4. I(X;Y)) = H(X)+H(Y)-H(X,Y).
 Discrete communication channel
The communication channel in which both input
and output is a sequence of symbols is called a
discrete communication channel or coding
channel.

A discrete4 channel is characterized by a set of transition

probability Pij which depends on the parameters of
modulator, transmission medium or channel, noise and
demodulator.
 Discrete
communication
channel
The input to the discrete channel is any of the M
symbols of an
alphabet provided and output is the symbol belonging to
same alphabet.
Model of discrete channel is shown below:
 Rate of information over a
discrete channel
• In discrete channels, the average rate of information
transmission is assumed to be the difference between
input data rate and error rate.
• The average rate of information of transmission
information over a
discrete channel isover
transmitted defined asinformation
minus the amount lost.
• It is denoted by Dt and is given by, the channel
 Capacity of discrete memoryless
channel
The maximum allowable rate of information that can be transmitted over
a discrete channel is called capacity of memoryless channel.

When channel matches with the source, maximum rate of transmission

takes place.

Therefore, channel capacity,

C= max [I(X,Y)] = Max [ H(X) – H(X/Y) ]
 M-Ary discrete memoryless
channel
The channel which transmit and receive one of the ‘m’ possible
symbols depending on the present input and independent of
previous input is called M-Ary discrete memoryless channel.

The relation between conditional entropy and joint entropy can

be written as,

H(X,Y) = H(X/Y) + H(Y) = H(Y/X) + H(X)

0

Capacity of Gaussian channel- Shannon

Hartley Theorem

Shannon- Hartley theorem states that the capacity of

Gaussian channel having bandwidth ‘W’ is given as,

Where, W = Channel bandwidth

S= Average signal
power N= Average
noise power
 Shannon- Fano
algorithm
Shannon Fano coding is source encoding technique which is used to
remove the redundancy (repeated information). The following
steps are involved
1. For a given list of symbols, develop a corresponding list of
probabilities or frequency counts so that each symbol’s relative
frequency of occurrence is known.
2. Sort the lists of symbols according to frequency, with the most
frequently occurring symbols at the left and the least common at
the right.
 Shannon- Fano
algorithm
3. Divide the list into two parts, with the total frequency counts of the
left part being as close to the total of the right as possible.
4. The left part of the list is assigned the binary digit 0, and the right
part is assigned the digit 1. This means that the codes for the symbols in
the first part will all start with 0, and the codes in the second part will
all start with 1.
5. Recursively apply the steps 3 and 4 to each of the two halves,
subdividing groups and adding bits to the codes until each symbol has
become a corresponding code leaf on the tree.