William L Masterton
Cecile N. Hurley
Edward J. Neth
cengage.com/chemistry/masterton
Chapter 5
Gases
Edward J. Neth • University of Connecticut
Outline
• Measurements on Gases
• The Ideal Gas Law
• Gas Law Calculations
• Stoichiometry of Gaseous Reactions
• Gas Mixtures: Partial Pressures and Mole Fractions
• Kinetic Theory of Gases
• Real Gases
Introduction to Gases
• Gases have been known to exist since ancient times
• The Greeks considered gases one of the four
fundamental elements of nature
• 18th Century
• Lavoisier, Cavendish and Priestley: Air is
primarily nitrogen and oxygen, with trace
components of argon, carbon dioxide and water
vapor
Current Interest
• Gases in the news
• Ozone depletion in the stratosphere
• Carbon dioxide and global warming
State Variables
• State variables describe the state of a system under
study
• To specify the state of a gas, four quantities must be
known
• Volume
• Amount
• Temperature
• Pressure
Volume, Amount and Temperature
• A gas expands uniformly to fill the container in which
it is placed
• The volume of the container is the volume of the
gas
• Volume may be in liters, mL, or cm3
• The temperature of a gas must be indicated on the
Kelvin scale
• Recall that K = °C + 273.15
• Amount of a gas is the number of moles
Pressure
• Pressure is force per unit area
• In the English system, pounds per square inch or
psi
• Atmospheric pressure is about 14.7 psi
Measuring Pressure – The Barometer
The Barometer
• The barometer measures pressure in terms of the
height of a column of liquid mercury
• The atmosphere exerts a force on a pool of
mercury, causing it to rise
• One standard atmosphere of pressure is a column
of mercury 760 mm high
• Mercury is used to keep the column a
manageable height
The Manometer
Gas Pressure Measurement
• The manometer measures gas pressure by
differential
• The height of the column of liquid is proportional
to the pressure
• Gas pressure can be more or less than
atmospheric pressure
Other Units of Pressure
• 1 atm = 14.7 psi
• 1 atm = 760 mmHg
• The mmHg is also called the torr after Torricelli,
inventor of the barometer
• SI unit of measurement, the pascal (Pa)
• 1 Pa is the pressure exerted by a 0.1 mm high film
of water on the surface beneath it
• The bar = 105 Pa
• 1.013 bar = 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 14.7 psi = 101.3 kPa
Example 5.1
Example 5.1, (Cont’d)
The Ideal Gas Law
1. Volume is directly proportional to amount
• V = k1n (constant T, P)
2. Volume is directly proportional to absolute
temperature
• V = k2T (constant n, P)
Figure 5.3
The Ideal Gas Law
3. Volume is inversely proportional to pressure
• V = k3/P (constant n, T)
Temperature Effects – Charles’s Law
The Ideal Gas Law
• Collect k1, k2 and k3 into a new constant
• PV = nRT
• R is the gas constant
• Units of R:
L atm
R 0.0821
mol K
Table 5.1 – Units of R
Standard Temperature and Pressure
• STP
• 1 atm P
• 273 K
• At STP, the molar volume of a gas can be calculated as
follows:
L atm
1.00 mol 0.0821 273 K
nRT mol K
V 22.4 L
P 1.00 atm
Gas Law Calculations
• Final and initial state problems
• Single-state problems
• Density or molar mass problem
Final and Initial State Problems
• In this type of problem, a gas undergoes a change
from its initial to its final state
• The ideal gas equation is written twice, once for the
initial state (1) and once for the final state (2)
Example 5.2
Example 5.2, (Cont'd)
Example 5.2, (Cont'd)
Single state problems – Calculating P, V, n or T
• In this type of problem, one of the state variables is
not known
• The ideal gas equation can be solved for the
unknown
• Take care to follow the units through the calculation!
Example 5.3
Example 5.3 (Cont’d)
Molar Mass and Density
• Density = mass/volume
• Recall that the molar mass has units of grams
(mass) per mole
• Now, look at the ideal gas law:
• The number of moles appears
• Moles, n, can be expressed as mass/MM
• There is also a volume term in the ideal gas law
Rewriting the Ideal Gas Law in Density Terms
m
PV RT
MM
m P MM
d
V R T
Density of Gases
• Density is an intensive property
• Does not depend on the amount of substance
• Density of a gas does depend on
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Molar mass
Balloons
Example 5.4
Example 5.4, (Cont'd)
Example 5.4, (Cont'd)
Example 5.4, (Cont'd)
Stoichiometry in Gaseous Reactions
• Gases can participate as reactants or products in
any chemical reaction
• Gases are balanced in the same way as liquids,
solids, or aqueous solutions in chemical equations
Example 5.5
Example 5.5, (Cont'd)
Figure 5.5: Flow Chart for Stoichiometric
Calculations Involving Gases
Example 5.6
Example 5.6, (Cont'd)
Example 5.6, (Cont'd)
Example 5.6, (Cont'd)
Figure 5.6: Stoichiometry of the Electrolysis
of Water
Example 5.7
Example 5.7, (Cont’d)
Example 5.7, (Cont’d)
Gas Mixtures: Partial Pressures and Mole
Fractions
• The ideal gas law applies to all gases, so it applies
to mixtures of gases as well
• A new term is needed for a mixture of gases
• Partial pressure, the part of the total pressure due
to each gas in the mixture
• Sum of the partial pressures is the total pressure
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
• The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the
partial pressures of the gases in the mixture
• Consider a mixture of hydrogen and helium:
• P H2 = 2.46 atm
• P He = 3.69 atm
• P total = 6.15 atm
Vapor Pressure
• The vapor pressure of a substance is the pressure of
the gaseous form of that substance
• Vapor pressure is an intensive property
• Vapor pressure depends on temperature
Collecting a Gas Over Water
• When a gas is collected over water, the total
pressure is the pressure of the gas plus the vapor
pressure of water
Wet Gases
• P H2O is the vapor pressure of water
• P H2O is dependent on temperature
• Consider H2 gas collected over water:
Ptot PH2O PH2
Example 5.8
Partial Pressure and Mole Fraction
• One can rearrange the Ideal Gas Law for a mixture
containing two gases, A and B
PA nA
Ptot ntot
Mole Fraction
• The mole fraction of gas A is the number of moles of A
divided by the total number of moles of gas in the mixture
nA
XA
ntot
Dalton’s Law and Mole Fraction
• The partial pressure of gas A is its mole fraction
times the total pressure
PA X APtot
Example 5.9
Example 5.9, (Cont’d)
Kinetic Theory of Gases
The kinetic-molecular model
1. Gases are mostly empty space. The total volume
of the molecules is small
2. Gas molecules are in constant, random motion
3. Collisions of gas particles are elastic
4. Gas pressure is caused by collisions of
molecules with the walls of the container
Figure 5.8 – The Kinetic Molecular Model
New Variables
• N, the number of gas particles
• m, the mass of the gas particle
• u, the average speed of a gas particle
Pressure and the Molecular Model
Nmu 2
P
3V
• Notes:
• N/V is the concentration of gas particles
• mu2 is a measure of the energy of the collisions
Average Kinetic Energy of Translational Motion
3RT
E
2N A
• Notes:
• R is the gas constant
• T is the Kelvin temperature
• NA is Avogadro’s number
Results from Kinetic Energy of Translational
Motion
• At a given temperature, all molecules of all gases
have the same average kinetic energy of
translational motion
• The average kinetic energy of a gas particle is
directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature
Average Speed, u
1
3RT 2
u
MM
• The average speed is proportional to the square root of the
Kelvin temperature
• The average speed is proportional to the inverse of the square
root of the molar mass of the gas
Figure 5.9 – Ammonia and Hydrogen Chloride
Example 5.10
Example 5.10 ,(Cont’d)
Effusion of Gases
• Diffusion
• Gases move through space from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration
• You can smell an apple pie baking as the particles
responsible for the odor diffuse through the room
• Effusion
• Gas particles will escape through a small hole
(orifice) in a container
• Air will slowly leak out of a tire or balloon through pores
in the rubber
Graham’s Law of Effusion
1
rate of effusion of B MMA 2
rate of effusion of A MMB
• The rate at which gas B escapes divided by the rate at
which gas A escapes is equal to the square root of the
ratio of the molar mass of gas A to gas B
Effusion of Gases
Example 5.11
Example 5.11, (Cont’d)
Gaseous Effusion and the Manhattan Project
• Effusion was used to separate U-238 from U-235
• Recall that isotopes have the same chemical
properties, and so cannot be separated by
chemical means
• The mass of 238UF6 is heavier than the mass of 235UF6
• Very small difference in mass
• 235UF6 effuses more quickly because of its smaller
mass
Distribution of Molecular Speeds
• At a given temperature, gas particles will have a set
of speeds, not a single fixed value for speeds
• Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
Figure 5.10: Distribution of Molecular
Speed
Distribution of Molecular Speeds
• Plot the fraction of molecules having a given speed
vs. the molecular speed
• Curve that results has a maximum in the number of
molecules with the given speed
• Most probable speed
• As the temperature increases
• The maximum shifts toward higher speed
• The relative number of molecules at that speed
decreases
Example 5.12
Real Gases
• Recall that the molar volume of a gas at STP is 22.4
L from the ideal gas law
• There are deviations from this volume that depend
on the gas being studied
• The molar volume of a real gas is less than that
calculated by the ideal gas law
Table 5.2
Liquefaction of Gases
• All gases can be liquefied
• Lowering the temperature
• Increasing the pressure
• When a gas is liquefied, the attractive forces
between gas particles becomes significant
• The closer a gas is to the liquid state, the more it will
deviate from the ideal gas law
Two Factors for Real Gases
• Two factors are important to real gases
1. The attractive forces between the gas particles
2. The volume of the gas particles
• Both of these are ignored by the ideal gas law
Attractive Forces
• Note that the observed molar volume for gases is
lower than that calculated by the ideal gas law
• The forces between particles pull the particles
together
• The volume occupied by the gas is then
decreased
• This is a negative deviation from the ideal gas law
Particle Volume
• Consider a plot of the observed molar volume/ideal
molar volume for methane vs. pressure
• Up to 150 atm, the deviation from ideality steadily
increases
• The volume of the gas particles becomes a more
significant factor in determining the volume of the
gas as the pressure increases
Figure 5.11 – Deviation from Ideal Volume
Key Concepts
1. Conversion between P, V, T and n
2. Use of the ideal gas law to:
• Solve initial and final state problems
• Solve single-state problems
• Calculate the density or molar mass of a gas
• Relate amounts of gases in reactions
3. Use Dalton’s Law
4. Calculate the speed of gas molecules
5. Use Graham’s Law to relate the rate of effusion to
the molar mass of a gas
